權力與沖突管理(英文)

PowerTheabilityorpotentialtoinfluenceothersinadesireddirectionPowerisnotinherentlybad-TheneedtoinfluenceanddirectothersisanintegralpartofmanagementPower:DependencyModelReciprocaldimensions Individualscedepowertotheextentthattheymust(orperceivetheymust)relyonotherstoaccomplishtasks. Individualswhoarerelieduponaccruepower.PowerandDependencyDependencyincreaseswhen: Jobsbecomemorespecialized Tasksbecomemoreinterdependent Authorityisdiffused Environmentbecomesmoreuncertain TechnologyincreasesPower:ExchangeModelNotmerelyacounteractiontodependencyPowerisanexchangeprocess.PartofsocialinteractionOrganizationisrunthroughaseriesofindividualnegotiationsPower:ExchangeModelPerson1commandsresourcesneededbyPerson2Person1exchangesresources,inreturnPerson2complieswithPerson1’srequestsPower:EmpowermentModelPowerisnotafiniteresource Organizationalpowergrowsthroughsharingit

Power:EmpowermentModelEffectiveuseofpowerrequirestrainingandexperiencePowercarriestheconcomitantneedtoactresponsibly.Empowermentusuallyfailsincaseswhereusershavenoperviousexperienceinitsuse.Power:EmpowermentModelModelhasgrowninpopularityfromrecognitionthatpowerlessnesshasadverseeffectsonorgs. e.g.,loweredmotivationand commitmentPower:EmpowermentModelSourcesofPowerlessness1.OrganizationalCulture2.ManagementStyle3.JobDesign4.RewardSystemsLegitimacyofpower

Peoplewillfollowdirectionorbepersuadedthroughanumberofcausessuchas…FearofconsequencesofnotobeyingDesireforrewardsNeedforresourcescontrolledbyanindividualBeliefinthelegitimacyofaperson’spowerI.e.,theywieldmoralauthorityorYoubelievethattheirdirectionwillresultinthegreatergoodforanorganizationLegitimacyisthemostdifficultwaytoachievepowerHardesttounseatonceit’sestablishedPower-sourcesPeoplederivepowerfrom3basicsources:1.Thepositiontheyhold2.Theirpersonalcharacteristics3.TheresourcesorinformationtheycanaccessandcontrolPositionPowerPowerthatisaccruedbyvirtueofwhereyouareintheorganization:AuthorityLegitimatepower:Subordinatesobeyordersbecausetheyviewthemaslegitimateduetothepositionthatamanagerholdsintheorganization.PositionPowercontdControlofrewardsandpunishments: “Stickandcarrot”power.Mayalsobecoercivepower.Centrality:Thedegreetowhichapositionislinkedtoandimportanttotheactivitiesofotherindividualsandsubunits.PersonalPowerBasedonindividualknowledgeandabilityorpersonalinfluenceoverotherindividuals.Expertise:Basedonuniqueorspecialknowledge.PersonalPowerCharisma/Referent: Personalcharmandpersuasiveness. Referent-personisattachedtooridentifieswithanindividualandthereforecanbeinfluenced Individualswithcharismaoftendevelopreferentpowerbecausetheyattractotherstofollow.PersonalPowerCoercionPowerexercisedthroughfearofadverseconsequencesMyhaveadverseconsequencessuchasstress,turnoverandanxietyResourceandInformationBasedPower

ControlofScarceResources:Largelyself-explanatory,butbesureyouunderstandwhatresourcesareintegraltoyourjob.Notalwaysobvious:e.g.,keystorooms,projectorsetc.ResourceandInformationBasedPowerControlofresourcescanalsoincludeanindividual/unit’sabilitytobringinresourcesfromoutsidetheorganization.e.g.,Successfulgrantwritersoftenexertpowerbeyondwhatmayappearfromtheirpositioninanorganization.ResourceandInformationBasedPowerIndividualsorgroupsmaythemselvesbescarceresources.Unsubstitutability:Howhardisitforanyothergrouporindividualtoperformcertaintasks?Howintegralarethesetaskstotheorganization?UnsubstitutabilityIndividualsorgroupsoftencreatethesesituationsbyperformingduties,butnotexplaininghowthey’redone.Oftendiscussedincomputercentersinthedebateoverserviceprovisionversusend-usertraining.InformationisaresourcePeoplewhocommandinformationalsocommandpower.Maximallyusefulin:SituationsofUncertaintyIndividualsdislikeuncertaintyandindividualswhocanrelievethisuncertaintyacquirepower (DependencyRelationship)ConflictandNegotiation

Conflict: “theprocesswhichbeginswhenonepartyperceivesthattheotherhasfrustratedorisabouttofrustratesomeconcernofhisorhers.”ConflictandNegotiation

Ingeneral,thelikelihoodofconflictincreaseswhen:PartiesinteractViewtheirdifferencesasincompatibleSeeconflictasaconstructivewayofresolvingdisagreementsConflictoccurswhen:Morespecifically,conflictoccurswhen:1.Mutuallyexclusivegoalsorvaluesexistinfact,orareperceivedtoexist,bythegroupsinvolved.2.Interactionischaracterizedbybehaviordesignedtodefeat,reduce,orsuppresstheopponent,ortogainamutuallydesignatedvictoryConflictoccurswhen:3.Thegroupsfaceeachotherwithmutuallyopposingactionsandcounteractions.4.Eachgroupattemptstocreatearelativelyfavoredpositioninrelationtotheother.Conflictisnotinherentlybad:Positiveoutcomes:Betterideas/decisionsNewapproachestosolveproblemsSurfacingandthenresolvingoflong-standingproblemsClarificationofindividualviewsIncreasedinterestandcreativityNegativeoutcomesofconflictNegativeoutcomes:IncreaseddistancebetweenpeopleClimateofmistrustandsuspicionResistanceratherthanteamworkIncreasedturnoverFeelingsofdefeat/humiliationPerceptionandconflictPerceptionsplayalargeroleinconflicts. Individualsmayframetheirperceptionsalong3dimensions:

a.Relationship/Task b.Emotional/Intellectual c.Cooperate/WinHowindividualsorgroupshandleconflictoftendependsonhowtheyframeitineachdimensionWhethertheoutcomeofconflictisgoodorbaddependsonavarietyoffactors:SocioculturalcontextIssuesinvolvedCognitiveframe i.e.,competitiveoutlooksarelesslikelytoseeka compromiseorfunctionaloutcome4. Characteristicsoftheparticipants

knowledge,experience,personalstyleinfluence outcomes5. MisjudgmentsandMisperceptionsStagesofConflictConflictchangesovertime 1.Latent Conditionsforconflictexist foundationsfordisagreement 2.Perceived Differencesaremadepublic 3.Felt Involvedpartiesbegintofeeltenseas theresultofconflict i.e.,theconflictbecomespersonalStagesofConflict 4.Manifestconflict

Observablebehavioremergesthatis designedtopursueoneparty’sgoalsor frustrateanother’s.

5.ConflictaftermathConflictResolutionBasicparadigmsofnegotiation:DistributivebargainingIntegrativebargainingConflictResolutionDistributive- Classicview.Adversarialroles.Oneparty’sclaimisanotherparty’sloss.Offer/Counter-offerstrategy. Powerisofparamountimportance.ConflictResolutionIntegrative- Transformtheprocessintoamutuallyadvantageousone. Problemsolvingratherthanwin-loseapproach.Conflictresolutionstyles1.Competing satisfyingyourconcernsbutnottheotherparty’sWorkswellin: emergencies unpopulardecisions onepartyisabsolutelycorrect onepartyhassignificantlymorepower

Conflictresolutionstyles2.Collaboration problemsolvingwiththeaimofmaximizing satisfactiontoallparties(integratedsolution) workingtogethertoachieve commongoalsWorkswellwhen: Bothsetsofgoalsaretooimportantto compromise FeelingshaveinterferedwitharelationshipConflictresolutionstyles3.Compromise Sharingpositions,butnotmovingtoextremesofassertivenessorcooperationWorkswellwhen: Bothsetsofgoalsareimportantbutenoughsoto makeeitherpartyassertive Partieshaveequalpower TimepressuresaresignificantConflictresolutionstyles4.Avoidance Withdrawingoravoidingtheconflict

Satisfyneithertheirownnortheotherparty’sconcernsWorkswellwhen: Issuesaretrivial Individualshavelittlechanceofsatisfyingtheir goals

Resolvingtheconflictwillresultinsignificant disruptionConflictresolutionstyles5.Accommodation Onepartysatisfiestheother’sconcernswithoutaddressingtheirownWorkswellwhen: Onepartyrealizestheyarewrong Issuesaremoreimportanttoother’sthanyourself Buildingsocialcreditsforlateruseisimportant Harmony&stabilityareimportant SubordinatesneedtolearnfromtheirmistakesConflictresolution-AfewpracticalpointsLookforpointsofagreementDon’targueoverareaswhereyouagreeConflictresolution-FormalMethodsI.GrievanceProceduresFormalprocessbywhichworkerscomplaintomanagementincaseswheretheyfeelmistreatedortheirrightswereviolated.GrievanceProceduresProvidesamechanismto:1.respondtoworkerscomplaints2.clarifyworker’sandemployer’srights3.formallybringacomplainttotheattentionof management(andorunionofficials)4.defineacomplaint5.structureameetingbetweenpartiesConflictResolutionII.MediationandArbitrationThird-partyinterventionswithtrainedintermediaries.Mediator-facilitatescommunicationandresolutionbetweentwoormoreparties.Arbitrator-actsasjudgeandmakesadecisiononanissue.MediationandArbitrationBasicnegotiationparadigmsaredifferentArbitration-tryingtoconvinceajudgethatyoursideistherightoneMediation-TryingtoreachamutualpointofagreementTechniquesformoresuccessfulnegotiations1.Prepare Understandtheproblemthoroughly UnderstandtheothersidethoroughlyNegotiationtechniques2.EvaluateAlternatives Whatcanyoulivewith? Whatdoyouideallywant? Whatcan’tyoulivewith? Understandwhatyoucanandcan’tbargainover.Negotiationtechniques3.Whataretheactualinterestsofbothparties?

Youknowwhatthey’reaskingfor,butwhat dotheyreallywant? Whatalternativescanwecomeupwiththat willaccommodatebothparties? Whatareyoursharedinterests? Whatcanwedothatwillbenefitbothparties?Questionstoencouragereasonablesettlements.1.Whatdoyouwanttoaccomplishtoday?2.Whataretherisksoffollowingapresentcourseofaction?3.Whataretherealisticalternativestosettlement?Questionstoencouragereasonablesettlements.4.Istheofferyouaremakingfair?Wouldyoumakethesameoffertosomeoneyourespect?5.Istheofferinli