韋曉亮Argu筆記

1、 Argument 完整版注：要把242個(gè)題目每一個(gè)題目都分析一遍 以免耽誤考場(chǎng)時(shí)間（一） Argument的寫作特點(diǎn)和整體結(jié)構(gòu)給出一篇短文，30分鐘內(nèi)指出文章中主要的邏輯錯(cuò)誤，并提出建議。外推類錯(cuò)誤 過(guò)去比較好的未必會(huì)延續(xù)到將來(lái)充分必要條件錯(cuò)誤 還有其他原因錯(cuò)誤類比 讓步式攻擊Argument 193：Survey 調(diào)查類錯(cuò)誤；因果關(guān)系錯(cuò)誤；錯(cuò)誤類比第一段：開頭段 主要是歸納論點(diǎn)，說(shuō)明論點(diǎn)有問(wèn)題，存在邏輯漏洞，準(zhǔn)備發(fā)起進(jìn)攻。第二段和第三段甚至第四段：正文段 分類別去攻擊各個(gè)邏輯錯(cuò)誤第五段：結(jié)尾段 作者的結(jié)論似乎是合理的，但是通過(guò)論證，不是這樣的。因此作者在作出決定之前，應(yīng)該還要考慮其他情況。

2、（二） 如何寫開頭段C-E-F結(jié)構(gòu) conclusion結(jié)論 evidence證據(jù) flaw缺陷模板 1 混合態(tài)度表達(dá)Merely based on (rely on/ depend on) unfounded assumption and dubious (suspicious) evidence, the statement (the article, the author, the arguer) draws a conclusion that. -C(條理化最好)To substantiate (support/strengthen) the conclusion, the argue

3、r points out evidence that .a1. In addition, he indicates that .a2. Furthermore, he cites/ quotes the result of a recent survey in support of his recommendation. (Furthermore, the author cites a3 as a typical example in support of his recommendation.) -E(讓步邏輯)At first sight/glance, this argument app

4、ears/seems to be somewhat convincing, but further reflection (考慮) reveals that it ignores/omits some substantial concerns that should be addressed to substantiate the argument. In my point of view, this argument suffers from (N) logical flaws.避免主觀陳述模板 2 In this argument, the author concludes that Th

5、e author cites about 123In addition, he infers that Furthermore, the arguer cites sb. sth. as a typical example. In support of However, this ,in favor of (先顛覆宏觀連接 在弱化聯(lián)系) Making this argument sound and perfect C和E不要照抄，把原文進(jìn)行概述、提煉等改寫 C最重要argument和issue不一樣，argument要規(guī)范、規(guī)矩，而issue則要多樣。找準(zhǔn)c,概述e（三） 如何寫正文段一、合理

6、安排邏輯錯(cuò)誤的攻擊順序 a. 按照邏輯錯(cuò)誤出現(xiàn)的順序進(jìn)行順序式攻擊；(低級(jí) ) b. 按照邏輯錯(cuò)誤的主次進(jìn)行攻擊； 如果文章的主要錯(cuò)誤出現(xiàn)在調(diào)查，則先攻擊之。 c. 按照邏輯體系進(jìn)行讓步式攻擊（推薦這種，最合理）與出現(xiàn)順序無(wú)關(guān) 不是每個(gè)題目都可以這樣的 按錯(cuò)誤的演繹關(guān)系，如：A = B = C，則先攻擊A，A不成立；即便A成立，攻擊B，B不成立；假設(shè)即使A和B都成立，攻擊C，C不成立。何況A、B都不成立。Argument 2：外推類錯(cuò)誤 seven years ago;因果類錯(cuò)誤 since then;錯(cuò)誤類比注意：逐步讓步二、各段首句 引言局 1 這個(gè)文章存在的第一個(gè)關(guān)鍵性的問(wèn)題是the m

7、ajor problem with the argument is that2 另外一個(gè)弱化了原文邏輯的點(diǎn)在于another problem that weaken a logic of this argument is3 Before I come to my conclusion, it is necessary to point out the flaw involved in this argument. (暗示讀者是最后一個(gè)了，啟下)【具體沒有記，回頭再補(bǔ)充】3個(gè) 比較好（四） 如何寫結(jié)尾段(虛擬語(yǔ)氣) 2006ETS：結(jié)尾和開頭要有區(qū)別C-S結(jié)構(gòu) C：再次概括原文沒有自圓其說(shuō)的co

8、nclusion。S：suggestion 重要 模板：To sum up/ all in all, this arguer fails to substantiate the claim that_, because the evidences cited in the analysis do not lend strong support to what the arguer maintains. To make the argument more convincing, the arguer would have to provide more information with rega

9、rd to_ (點(diǎn)到為止). Additionally, he would have to demonstrate that_. Therefore, if the argument had included the given factors discussed above, it would have been more thorough and logically acceptable. (這里用虛擬語(yǔ)氣表示遺憾) （五） 各個(gè)邏輯錯(cuò)誤的攻擊方法和語(yǔ)言一、調(diào)查類邏輯錯(cuò)誤（survey/study）題庫(kù)中重中之重很多標(biāo)志詞見手寫版筆記。攻擊：樣本的質(zhì)量和數(shù)量；采樣過(guò)程是否科學(xué)合理(1) P

10、rocedure 調(diào)查過(guò)程錯(cuò)誤 核心A. Selective sample (片面性樣本) 攻擊點(diǎn)：樣本選擇不隨機(jī)、不具代表性 攻擊技巧：調(diào)查對(duì)象前一系列限定性定語(yǔ)或修飾詞B. Quantity of the sample攻擊點(diǎn)：樣本數(shù)量少，即便有典型性也不能說(shuō)明問(wèn)題模板：Unless the surveyors sampled a sufficient number of _樣本集_ and did so randomly across the entire spectrum, the survey results are not reliable to gauge/weigh/assess

11、/value _調(diào)查目標(biāo)_ generally/universally (評(píng)估什么的廣泛性、一般性). The number of respondents/samples, in itself, does not ensure/guarantee/warrant representativeness (代表性). For example, if the sample included only _(某一方面), then the results would no doubt suggest (此處不表示建議，因此不用虛擬語(yǔ)氣，表示暗示)_. Or if grosses are consider

12、able (可觀的), _(1500,1200) would account for only a little percentage, which would render/lead to (導(dǎo)致) the results of the survey meaningless.正反邏輯：正邏輯：順著原文的條件，得出原文的結(jié)論。例如：如果這個(gè)樣本只包含了參加這個(gè)課程有效果的那部分學(xué)生，毫無(wú)疑問(wèn)會(huì)得到這個(gè)課程有效的結(jié)果。反邏輯：與原文相反的條件，得到相反的結(jié)論。例如：如果這個(gè)樣本只包含了參加這個(gè)課程無(wú)效的那部分學(xué)生，很有可能結(jié)果就暗示了該課程的無(wú)效性。C. 回應(yīng)者是否說(shuō)了真話是個(gè)小錯(cuò)誤，可以不攻擊

13、，即便要攻擊，用一句話合并在QQ里面就可以。一般由于是否匿名、保密、利益。We are not informed whether the survey response anonymous and confidential, if they were not _.Argument 115D暗含性假設(shè)（我看還是不要攻擊了）【3/113】Argument 115如：是滿意還是非常不滿意？也是一句話概括：We are not informed whether the survey required the respondents to choose their proneness between a

14、lternative, if indeed, then the result might have distort the genuine 想法 of the respondent who might actually prefer A to B or C.(2) Result of the survey 調(diào)查結(jié)果類錯(cuò)誤（一句話）A. Do the statistics make any meaningfulness 數(shù)據(jù)是否有意義 數(shù)據(jù)無(wú)意義指的是數(shù)據(jù)和結(jié)論不相關(guān)。The statistic should be relating to the conclusion.Argument 14B.

15、 Are the statistics misleadingly vague 數(shù)據(jù)是否含糊標(biāo)志詞：all， many， a number of， most 絕對(duì)化數(shù)量 percentage proportion 相對(duì)比值注：絕對(duì)和相對(duì)缺一即要攻擊，題庫(kù)中沒有任何一個(gè)題兩個(gè)都有，所以肯定缺一。1）攻擊“無(wú)相對(duì)比值”The argument tells us that many(a number of) _.However, the speaker fails to indicate the percentage of_, so this evidence is far too vague to

16、be meaningful.2)攻擊“無(wú)絕對(duì)數(shù)值”The author fails to provide information regarding the absolute number of _.Argument 102 C. Respondents（這個(gè)詞只要出現(xiàn)肯定回應(yīng)者錯(cuò)誤） 回應(yīng)者錯(cuò)誤（小錯(cuò)誤）Argument 11The respondents must be statistically significant in number and representative of the overall_.(3) Who conducted the survey 調(diào)查者錯(cuò)誤 誰(shuí)做了這個(gè)

17、調(diào)查標(biāo)志詞：主觀代詞cross-bencher 中立機(jī)構(gòu)N nonaligned 中立的AThe surveyor must be cross-bencher/nonaligned.Argument 179(4) When was the survey conducted? 調(diào)查時(shí)間錯(cuò)誤在時(shí)間軸上，做調(diào)查的時(shí)間和通過(guò)調(diào)查得出結(jié)論的時(shí)間在時(shí)間上要足夠的近。A threshold problem is that the editorial neglects to indicate how recently the survey was actually conducted. When sample

18、s are used to make general claims about a particular group, the samples should be close enough in time to the generalization (得出結(jié)論這個(gè)概括性行為). All we know in the editorial is that the survey was recently published. The less recent the survey itself is, the less reliable the results are to indicate _cur

19、rent interest levels.Argument 36 (難題)調(diào)查類錯(cuò)誤的寫作詞匯： 名詞：survey, questionnaire, statistical study (統(tǒng)計(jì)研究), sample, specimen (樣本的最文本化表述), sampling (采樣的動(dòng)作), quantity, quality, statistic (統(tǒng)計(jì)量), poll, absolute value, valid, validity, statistical validity, range (范圍), spectrum, scope 動(dòng)詞：select, choose, sample,

20、 investigate, examine, indicate, comprise ( vt. 直接加成分，用于表示樣本有什么構(gòu)成) 形容詞vs.副詞：valid, authentic (可信的), random, quantitative, statistical, typical, representative, characteristic, far-ranging (廣泛的), comprehensive (綜合的), expansive (廣泛的，易擴(kuò)張的), generally, universally二、充分必要條件類錯(cuò)誤（Sufficient Evidence and Nece

21、ssary Condition）（1）Sufficient Evidence充分條件標(biāo)志詞：once攻擊點(diǎn)：A不充分導(dǎo)致B，B的發(fā)生還依賴于其他原因（C,D,E.）；Argument 170模板：a.The argument assumes too hastily that _ will necessarily result in the behavior that the argument predicts. Perhaps, _ . Moreover, _.b.The fact that A is not sufficient for the prediction that B.（2）Ne

22、cessary Condition 必要條件作者在原文中一般會(huì)指出：A的發(fā)生是唯一導(dǎo)致B發(fā)生的必要條件；攻擊：沒A的發(fā)生，如果有C D E. 任何一個(gè)到兩個(gè)因素的發(fā)生也可以導(dǎo)致B的發(fā)生標(biāo)志詞：only, extreme.Argument 195（較難） 數(shù)據(jù)含糊 only.模板：The editors recommendation depends on the assumption that no factors other than big cityA caused financial troubleB. However, common sense informs me that this

23、assumption is a poor one. A myriad of other factors, including prise_ , might just as likely be the cause of B. To be specific, _. Without ruling out these and other possible causes, the editor cannot justifiably conclude that only by small city。_ can _解決financial trouble.充分必要條件的寫作詞匯歸納：名詞：condition、

24、requirement、necessary、sufficient condition、sufficiency（充分性）、outcome、aftermath（結(jié)果、余波）動(dòng)詞：constitute、establish、suffice、result（ing）、induce、render、exclude、rule of形容詞、副詞：sufficient、necessary、-（必然的、必要的）、necessarily、required三、因果關(guān)系（Cause and Effect Fallacies）因果類錯(cuò)誤的攻擊原理：原文說(shuō)A是B的原因，指出A不是原因，原因是C或者D，和充分必要條件是一樣的，不

25、同在于語(yǔ)言的操作。1、 無(wú)因果類錯(cuò)誤（Non sequitur）原文的“因”和“果”之間并不存在因果關(guān)系。標(biāo)志詞：so，cause，reason，since，link（關(guān)聯(lián)），population（關(guān)聯(lián)、關(guān)系），connection，therefore，and（并列句能傳達(dá)因果關(guān)系）Argument 212：Argument 142：注：a、要讀就讀名校，自身素養(yǎng)會(huì)提高，校友自愿會(huì)非常豐富。如果做research，越早去越好。我們國(guó)家不提原創(chuàng)性東西，都是看人家的論文做算法的改進(jìn)，做仿真。b、每晚和杯紅葡萄酒、可以安睡。A版本：The arguer fails to establish the

26、causal relationship between the fact that _（“果”） and the claim that _（“因”）. This argument is unacceptable unless there is compelling（相當(dāng)于persuasive） evidence to support the connection between these two events. Perhaps, for example, _ results from _（隨便幾個(gè)原因列進(jìn)去就可以了）.B版本：The arguer fails to establish the

27、 causal relationship between A and B. It is highly possible that other factors contribute to B（歸因于也可以用attribute B to A）. B might have resulted from C. It is also likely that D caused B. Lacking evidence that links A to B, it is presumptuous（武斷的、莽撞的） to suggest that A was responsible for B.2、時(shí)序因果關(guān)系類錯(cuò)

28、誤（Post hoc, ergo proper hoc）錯(cuò)誤原理：原文構(gòu)建了兩個(gè)錯(cuò)誤，A發(fā)生在B之前，B發(fā)生在A之后，然后說(shuō)由于A發(fā)生在B之前A就是B的原因。攻擊方式：說(shuō)兩個(gè)時(shí)間的時(shí)序關(guān)系不能反應(yīng)其邏輯關(guān)系標(biāo)志詞：because，after this，since then，therefore，consequence（因此）、consequentlyArgument 2Argument 102構(gòu)造一個(gè)段落：Based on the fact that A occurred after B, the editor infers that B should be responsible for A.

29、 However, the sequence of these events, in itself（在他本身來(lái)說(shuō)）, does not suffice to prove that earlier incident（event） caused the later one. It might have resulted from some other events instead: （這里列舉原因） to just a few possibilities（等等以上這些原因）. Without ruling out scenarios（場(chǎng)景） such as these, the editor ca

30、nnot establish a cause-and-effect（專門指代因果關(guān)系） relationship between A and B upon which the editors recommendation depends.該段落focus on了兩個(gè)詞：sequence、logic注：推薦電影：幸福終點(diǎn)站（湯姆漢克斯）、蝴蝶效應(yīng)、電子情書、綠色奇跡、小道驚魂、The May（很多人嚇出了毛病）VOICE001-105分鐘之前求求你表?yè)P(yáng)我、再說(shuō)一次我愛你（劉德華）、童夢(mèng)奇緣（劉德華，看完了很舒服）、神探（英文名為瘋狂的神探）推薦書籍和雜志：科學(xué)美國(guó)人、TTC（36g的音頻文件，還

31、有PCF，先下相關(guān)專業(yè)，適合練聽力）、設(shè)置首頁(yè)為USNews（沒記全）3、同時(shí)因果錯(cuò)誤（Concurrence）錯(cuò)誤原理：在時(shí)間軸上的某一個(gè)段內(nèi)或某一個(gè)時(shí)刻上，AB兩個(gè)事件同時(shí)發(fā)生，但作者在兩事件中強(qiáng)行加入了邏輯聯(lián)系或因果聯(lián)系。標(biāo)志詞：meanwhile、also、with、during、under、over（在期間）、parallelArgument 153Argument 85 （有兩層同時(shí)因果錯(cuò)誤）A版本：The argument observes a correlation between A and B, and then concludes that the former is t

32、he cause of the later. However, the argument fails to rule out other possible explanations for A or B. For example, 其他可能原因. Any of these factors might lead to B. Without ruling out all other factors it is unfair to conclude that A is responsible for B.B版本：（首句指出邏輯錯(cuò)誤的名稱ETS認(rèn)為是廢話，不提倡）The author commits

33、a fallacy of concurrence（同時(shí)性的）、in assuming that4、混淆因果錯(cuò)誤（Confuse the cause and effect）高檔邏輯錯(cuò)誤，但是沒有在242個(gè)題里出現(xiàn)。錯(cuò)誤原理：原文說(shuō)A導(dǎo)致了B的發(fā)生（嵌套這一上三種因果關(guān)系），但實(shí)際更多可能是B導(dǎo)致了A的發(fā)生。攻擊方法：首先攻擊兩者之間可能不存在因果關(guān)系；進(jìn)而讓步，即便真的存在因果關(guān)系，但似乎我們通過(guò)常理可以看出，更多的可能性是由于B的發(fā)生導(dǎo)致A的發(fā)生。模板：It is possible that the mayor has confused cause with effect respecting

34、 the recent developments in Ocean View. Perhaps A was a response（反應(yīng)） to B. Since the mayor has failed to account for this possibility, the claim that is completely unwarranted.5、攻擊“忽略他因”也是用于替換，主義語(yǔ)言的多樣化，見講義P4。模板：The arguer fails to account for other possible cause of 果. 果 might have been due to 其他原因.

35、 Without ruling out these and other alternative explanations for 果. The arguer cannot reasonably infer based on those trends that 因.因果關(guān)系的寫作詞匯歸納：名詞：relation、causality（因果關(guān)系文本化表達(dá)）、relevance、conjunction、connection、nexus（legal nexus）、association、linkage注：金融和法律以及保?。ㄌ貏e是性保健）每個(gè)人都要學(xué)動(dòng)詞：associate、link、connect、r

36、elate to、ignore、overlook、neglect、lose sight of形容詞和副詞：relational、relevant、related、carcal、sequent（次序的）、traceable（追溯到的）四、范圍變化類錯(cuò)誤（Changing Scope Fallacies）1、偷換概念（Different concepts） 2、由個(gè)體推整體（What is true for a member is also true for the group）3、整體推個(gè)體（Assuming that characteristics of a group apply to ea

37、ch group member）其中第二個(gè)和第三個(gè)比較常見，但是第一個(gè)也有二三十道題。往往和調(diào)查類錯(cuò)誤嵌套在一起。范圍變化類錯(cuò)誤的表征現(xiàn)象： a 題干的引言單據(jù)和正文總體出現(xiàn)了一個(gè)大的縱向的錯(cuò)誤b 正文內(nèi)部論據(jù)和結(jié)論之間發(fā)生范圍的變換或者縮小標(biāo)志詞：throughout（the country）、nationwide、statewide（都表示州而不表示全國(guó)）、 overall、across、average1、 偷換概念（Different concepts） Argument 167：攻擊方法：作者沒有對(duì)說(shuō)明的東西給出嚴(yán)格的定義以至于他混淆了這個(gè)概念。模板：A threshold probl

38、em involves the definition of A. The arguer fails to define this critical term. If A is defined as B, then how C, is irrelevant to whether 結(jié)論. In short, without a clear definition of A, it is impossible to assess the strength of the argument.注：提神可以早起用鼻子輕輕吸點(diǎn)涼水。每天中午閉眼（眼睛最累的時(shí)候）左轉(zhuǎn)三圈右轉(zhuǎn)三圈。頸椎問(wèn)題：每天在晚上或者中午的時(shí)

39、候點(diǎn)一個(gè)米二三十下。2、 由個(gè)體推整體（What is true for a member is also true for the group）Argument 8：以彼之道還彼之身（又故意設(shè)置的話，一定要找出來(lái)，不然會(huì)扣分。題庫(kù)中這樣的題有二三十道題）模板：The argument resets on the assumption that 個(gè)體案例 typify nationwide 整體情況. If this is not the case, then it is entirely possible that 在另一個(gè)地方，上述個(gè)案的結(jié)果不會(huì)發(fā)生相同的情況.Thus, lacking

40、more marketing information about _ nationwide, it is difficult to assess the merit of the memos recommendation.Argument 206：重要A模板：One problem with the argument is that it assumes that the nationwide(characteristics of a group apply to every member of that group) statistics about _ applies equally to

41、 個(gè)體成員, yet this might not be the case, for a variety of possible reasons. Perhaps _; or perhaps _. Without ruling out such possibilities, the author cannot justifiably conclude that _.B模板：（單句可以靈活使用當(dāng)不是主要邏輯錯(cuò)誤是，用一句話合并到主要邏輯錯(cuò)誤當(dāng)中去，有主有次）The overall trend in the nation may not reply the basic the conditions

42、 of this specific area.講一個(gè)特例平均值類錯(cuò)誤（Average）錯(cuò)誤原理：平均值不能概括整體信息，或者平均值的采樣根本不包含該個(gè)體。Argument 240：注:博客里有出國(guó)的時(shí)間表。八月份要在網(wǎng)上預(yù)約房租，要和美國(guó)人住在一起。3、 整體推個(gè)體（Assuming that characteristics of a group apply to each group member）寫作詞匯：名詞：scope、localization（本土化、地方化）、diversity（多樣性）、variety（變化性）、individual、unit（整體）、whole（抽象的整體概念）

43、動(dòng)詞：extend（延伸）、expand（放大）、broaden、enlarge、spread、shrink、distinguish、discriminate（也有歧視的意思）形容詞和副詞：overall、generally、extensive、entire、divers、dissimilar、multiplex（最文本化的表達(dá)：多元的）五、考慮問(wèn)題不全面（Incomplete Thought）1、沒有考慮一個(gè)事物的正反兩面性（Failing to weigh the advantage and disadvantage thoroughly）e. g. 說(shuō)一個(gè)事物具有兩面性：sth 中當(dāng)了

44、double-edged sword錯(cuò)誤原理：因?yàn)橛泻锰幘驮撟?，或反之攻擊：有好處也可能帶?lái)弊端，弊端可能大于好處，或反之Argument 2062、沒有考慮結(jié)論的可行性（Failing to consider the feasibility of the conclusion） 1和2都不是重要錯(cuò)誤，用單句（即標(biāo)題）就可以。但是其子類非常重要Profit問(wèn)題。注：PS中用別人的嘴說(shuō)出我的優(yōu)點(diǎn)，注重團(tuán)隊(duì)精神。Profit問(wèn)題：大錯(cuò)誤！要一個(gè)段落。利潤(rùn) = 收入 成本（也相當(dāng)于偷換概念）攻擊：利潤(rùn)不僅和收入有關(guān)而且和成本有關(guān)，成本大于利潤(rùn)會(huì)赤字。也有可能是反著說(shuō)，不過(guò)題庫(kù)里沒有。關(guān)鍵詞：就是利潤(rùn)

45、和成本和收入。Argument 170：Argument 180：模板：（第一句概括原文信息，指出在哪里犯了錯(cuò)誤）The authors conclusion that _ is unwarranted. Profit is a factor relating to not only revenue, but also costs. Its entirely possible that the costs of A, or other costs associated with BC, will offset（抵消）, even outweigh the revenue. Besides, a

46、 myriad of other unpredictable occurrence, such as unfavorable economic depression, might prevent _ from being as profitable in the foreseeable future as the argument predicts.美國(guó)有一段時(shí)間出現(xiàn)經(jīng)濟(jì)的大蕭條（a great depression），它來(lái)自于股市（stock market）的大崩盤（great crash）寫作詞匯歸納：名詞：disadvantage、drawback、demerit、advantage、m

47、erit、worthiness、pros and cons（正反兩面性）、revenue、income（income gap 收入差距）、proceeds、margin、gain（受益）、cost、feasibility（可行性）動(dòng)詞：consider、balance、weigh、compare形容詞和副詞：allround、allsided、onesided（片面的， love：?jiǎn)蜗嗨迹?、unilateral（片面的、單一的）注：1、認(rèn)認(rèn)真真的愛上一個(gè)人，被這個(gè)人愛上。2、認(rèn)認(rèn)真真的做一件事。人這輩子要是不變態(tài)幾次，辦不成大事。夢(mèng)想的是個(gè)矢量。六、外推類錯(cuò)誤（All things remai

48、n unchanged over time）1、過(guò)去的情況不能推得現(xiàn)在的情況和未來(lái)的情況（Past conditions remain unchanged in the present and future）攻擊：用自己的話表述任何事物在過(guò)長(zhǎng)的時(shí)間軸上都無(wú)法保持不變。時(shí)間軸上曾經(jīng)一個(gè)好的趨勢(shì)，但現(xiàn)在未必仍然很好，將來(lái)也未必可以保證；因?yàn)楹芏啾尘靶畔?huì)發(fā)生劇烈變化，人們無(wú)法預(yù)見的變化。注：珍惜你現(xiàn)在擁有的，穩(wěn)步成長(zhǎng)，不要急于求成。標(biāo)志詞：具體時(shí)間（seven years ago，last year）、trend、tendency（趨勢(shì)）、continue、remain、stayArgument

49、2： 先攻擊時(shí)序因果錯(cuò)誤，再攻擊外推類錯(cuò)誤模板：The author claims that 改寫原文信息. The author assumes without justification that the background conditions have remained the same at different time. The assumption is unwarranted because things rarely remain the same over extended period of time. There are likely all kinds of dif

50、ference between A（現(xiàn)在） and B（將來(lái)）. For example, A; however, B .Any of these scenarios, if true, would serve（表示充當(dāng)什么的作用的意思） to undermine（顛覆） the claim that 原文的聲稱. 2、現(xiàn)在的情況不能推出未來(lái)的情況（Present Conditions will remain unchanged into future）Argument 240：攻擊：寫作詞匯：名詞：trend、tendency、direction、fixedness（文本化：不變性）、div

51、ersity（多樣性）動(dòng)詞：forecast、anticipate、expect、continue（延續(xù)）、remain、alter（只細(xì)微變化，而change往往指的是大的變化）、inflect（文本化：改變、變化）、shift（轉(zhuǎn)移、變化）、transfer（改變、轉(zhuǎn)移）形容詞和副詞：bypast、forepast（過(guò)去的）、current、present、intending（將來(lái)的）、continued（延續(xù)的）、changeless（不變的）、unaltered（不變的）、variable注：很多時(shí)候?qū)懖幌氯ナ嵌略谠~上七、論據(jù)含糊（Vague evidence）（一類中最小的邏輯錯(cuò)誤）

52、 它的出現(xiàn)標(biāo)志著讓步式攻擊在False analogy 錯(cuò)誤中的出現(xiàn)1、 主觀詞匯類錯(cuò)誤錯(cuò)誤原理：主觀性表達(dá)所引起的詞匯類錯(cuò)誤，例如promise、guess等。因?yàn)榻Y(jié)論要給予事實(shí)和例舉。Argument 225：寫作詞匯歸納：vague、invalid（無(wú)效的、含糊的）、void（無(wú)效的）、illdefined（含糊的）、indistinct、unclear注意：儲(chǔ)備功能段落而不是背范文。2、關(guān)聯(lián)型FA（False Analogy）標(biāo)志詞：follow。錯(cuò)誤的機(jī)理：作者所A做了某件事，那么B也應(yīng)該效仿之。但作者沒有提到該事件給A帶來(lái)的益處。攻擊：先攻擊關(guān)聯(lián)型FA的模糊論據(jù)，再攻擊FA。首先，

53、作者的論據(jù)是invalid，沒有指出A通過(guò)取得了收益上的增加，即便如此，同樣的做法也未必適用于B。Argument 43：八、橫比與縱比（Analogy and comparison）（重中之重）所謂縱比：是自己和自己在時(shí)間軸上比1 錯(cuò)誤類比（False analogy）錯(cuò)誤原因：一個(gè)東西在一個(gè)地方取得成功，同樣做法在另外一個(gè)地放未必取得成功。并指出兩個(gè)事物存在深層次的差異和不可比性。攻擊方法：首先指出兩個(gè)地區(qū)/國(guó)家/人/行業(yè)之間的錯(cuò)誤類比;列舉兩者之間的種種差異;未能排除這些可能的差異的情況下,不能夠?qū)С鼋Y(jié)論.標(biāo)志詞: similar、same、nearby、neighboring標(biāo)志現(xiàn)象：

54、兩個(gè)行業(yè)或公司的名車個(gè)、兩個(gè)城市/國(guó)家/州就存在地理位置之間的類比關(guān)系錯(cuò)誤類比的表征現(xiàn)象：引言句（引言句出現(xiàn)的名字而正文未顯現(xiàn)）兩種錯(cuò)誤上面有提到。Argument 204：寫作詞匯歸納：名詞：analogy、comparison、similarity、comparability（可比性）、parallelism（相似性、可比性）動(dòng)詞：resemble（類似于，相似）、differ（區(qū)分）、vary（變化）、distinguish（區(qū)分）、discriminate、secern（區(qū)別，最書面化的用語(yǔ)）形容詞副詞：analogically（類比地、類似地）、homologous（類似的）、dis

55、tinct、dissimilar、disparate（迥然不同different的文本化表達(dá)）注：xiaobao_gre_901163.com，密碼為1234567890gre。 筆考02到07的真題資料（包括答案），也可以買白皮書;Issue寫作資料三張圖（諾貝爾文學(xué)、經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)等）足夠cover住issue的所有論據(jù)素材；數(shù)學(xué)總結(jié)；形近詞的總結(jié)；難句。2、 選擇性不完整比較（Incomplete or selective comparison）錯(cuò)誤原因：原文說(shuō)A做了一件事，因此B也應(yīng)該follow之攻擊：說(shuō)A和B不能類比Argument 233： 模板：The arguers recommen

56、dation relies on what might be a poor analogy between A and B. The analogy falsely depends on the assumption that _ in both A and B are similar. However, it is entirely possible that A and B 存在的不同（列舉一兩條）. In short, without accounting for（落下一個(gè)詞，沒聽清） possible differences between A and B, the arguer ca

57、nnot reasonably prove B will reap the similar benefits（這里用復(fù)數(shù)對(duì)嘛）. 題庫(kù)226（兩個(gè)行業(yè)間的差異）To strengthen the argument, instead of relying on a dubious analogy between A and B, the arguer should supply evidence, perhaps by way of a survey or a marketing program at A, to prove that (the proposed method will indeed he