石油大學(xué)工程碩士基礎(chǔ)英語考試內(nèi)容整理.doc

閱讀： Unite three； Rats and men47頁1-3段， 1 Professor N. R. F. Maier of the University of Michigan performed a series of experiments several years ago in which neurosis* is induced* in rats. The rats are first trained to jump off the edge of a platform at one of two doors. If the rat jumps to the right, the door holds fast, and it bumps its nose and falls into a net; if it jumps to the left, the door opens, and the rat finds a dish of food. When the rats are well trained to this reaction, the situation is changed. The food is put behind the other door, so that in order to get their reward they now have to jump to the right instead of to the left. (Other changes, such as marking the two doors in different ways, may also be introduced by the experimenter.) If the rat fails to figure out the new system, so that each time it jumps it never knows whether it is going to get food or bump its nose, it finally gives up and refuses to jump at all. At this stage, Dr. Maier says, Many rats prefer to starve rather than make a choice. 2 Next, the rats are forced to make a choice, being driven to it by blasts* of air or an electric shock. Animals which are induced to respond in the insoluble* problem situation, says Dr. Maier, settle down to a specific reaction (such as jumping solely at the left hand door) which they continue to execute* regardless of consequences. The response chosen under these conditions becomes fixated. Once the fixation* appears, the animal is incapable of learning an adaptive response in this situation. When a reaction to the left-hand door is thus fixated, the right-hand door may be left open so that the food is plainly visible. Yet the rat, when pushed, continues to jump to the left, becoming more panicky* each time. When the experimenter persists in forcing the rat to make choices, it may go into convulsions*, racing around wildly, injuring its claws, bumping into chairs and tables, then going into a state of violent trembling, until it falls into a coma*. In this passive state, it refuses to eat, refuses to take any interest in anything: it can be rolled up into a ball or suspended* in the air by its legsthe rat has ceased to care what happens to it. It has had a nervous breakdown. 3 It is the insolubility of the rats problem that leads to its nervous breakdown, and, as Dr. Maier shows in his studies of disturbed children and adults, rats and human beings seem to go through pretty much the same stages. First, they are trained to make habitually a given choice when confronted by a given problem; secondly, they get a terrible shock when they find that the conditions have changed and that the choice doesnt produce the expected results; third, whether through shock, anxiety, or frustration*, they may fixate on the original choice and continue to make that choice regardless of consequences; fourth, they sullenly refuse to act at all; fifth, when by external compulsion* they are forced to make a choice, they again make the one they were originally trained to make - and again get a bump on the nose; finally, even with the goal visible in front of them, to be attained* simply by making a different choice, they go crazy out of frustration. They tear around wildly; they sulk in corners and refuse to eat; bitter, cynical*, disillusioned*, they cease to care what happens to them. 1 密執(zhí)安大學(xué)的N.R.F. 麥耶教授幾年前做過一系列可以誘導(dǎo)鼠產(chǎn)生“ 神經(jīng)官能癥” 的實驗。首先訓(xùn)練鼠由平臺邊緣跳向兩個門中的一個。如果鼠向右跳，右門是碰不開的，那么鼠就撞了鼻子并掉進網(wǎng)里；如果鼠向左跳，左門就打開，鼠就會找到一碟食物。在鼠已很熟悉這一反應(yīng)時，就改變情況：把食物放在另外一扇門后，這樣鼠要想得到犒賞就不能向左跳，而要向右跳了。( 實驗者也可采用其他變化形式，比如用不同的方式標記兩個門。) 如果鼠弄不懂新規(guī)則，它每次跳時決不知是會得到食物還是會撞鼻子。最終它就會放棄，拒絕再跳。到這一步，麥耶博士說：“ 許多鼠寧愿挨餓也不再做選擇?！? 第二步，對鼠施加強大氣流或電擊，趕它，強迫它做出選擇?！?處于不能解決的難題之中而被迫做出反應(yīng)的動物，” 麥耶博士說，“ 最后總是落到一個特定的反應(yīng)上( 比如只4 向左跳)，不顧結(jié)果如何都總是做出這一反應(yīng)這種條件下所做出的反應(yīng)便固定不變了一旦出現(xiàn)了這種固態(tài)，動物就沒有能力學(xué)會適應(yīng)性的反應(yīng)了?！?一旦向左跳的反應(yīng)被固定下來時，可以讓右門開著使食物呈現(xiàn)在眼前?？墒鞘蟊或?qū)趕時卻仍舊向左跳，并且每次都愈來愈惶恐不安。實驗者繼續(xù)迫使鼠做出選擇時，鼠開始驚厥不安，四下狂奔，弄傷爪子，撞上桌椅，然后渾身劇烈顫抖，直到昏迷不醒。處于這樣的被動情況，鼠拒絕進食，對一切不感興趣：可以把它卷成一團或擒住雙腿倒掛空中無論怎樣擺布它，它都無動于衷。這時的鼠已是“ 神經(jīng)崩潰” 了。3 鼠所面臨問題的“ 不可解決性” 導(dǎo)致了它的神經(jīng)崩潰，而麥耶博士在他對心理失常的小孩和成人的研究報告中表明，鼠和人經(jīng)歷的各個階段大同小異。首先是兩者受訓(xùn)練，在面對某一問題時都習(xí)慣地做出某一選擇；然后，發(fā)現(xiàn)條件已改變而原來的選擇并不能產(chǎn)生預(yù)期的效果時，兩者都大吃一驚；再次，不論是出于震驚、焦慮還是受挫，兩者都會執(zhí)著于最初的選擇，不管結(jié)果，一意孤行；接著，悻悻然拒絕采取行動；而后，在被迫做出選擇時，兩者又總做出最初訓(xùn)練時所做出的選擇且再次碰壁；最后，即使目標就在眼前，只要做出不同的選擇就唾手可得時，兩者又都由于以前受到的挫折而發(fā)狂。他們瘋狂地四處撕抓；或是躲在角落里賭氣拒食；他們變得辛酸懷恨、不信任一切、心灰意冷，無論人們怎樣對待他們，他們都無動于衷。149頁全文，Unit Seven : Good taste, bad taste 1 The things you own tell stories about you as surely as the Joneses youre keeping up with. Each purchase reveals something your partner or closest friend may not realise from your intimate exchanges. Every time you buy something you exercise your taste. 2 Before the age of mass production, taste used to be the province of an educated elite*. But when the entire population became consumers for the first time, taste came out of the salons* and onto the streets. Suddenly, everybody had the opportunity to make a choice. 3 There cannot objectively* be such a thing as good or bad. It is rather as the novelist Arnold Bennett put it: good taste might be better than bad, but bad taste is certainly better than no taste at all. 4 Exercising taste is not difficult. You decide what stories you want your possessions to tell and then get on and orchestrate* them. But be warned: not every story is a flattering* one. Buy an onyx* ashtray* and you might as well rent poster* space and tell the world “I am the dupe* of cynical* manipulators* who have succeeded in seducing* me with flashy* rubbish. 5 Since the 18th century when taste was first discussed, people have believed that it was an endowment* of an elite, handed down to those poor souls below who wanted to better themselves. This opened up the market to tastemakers - either the patrician bureaucrats of Victorias reign, or the teams of slick decorators of today who have made careers out of introducing new money to old furniture. 6 But is the question of taste just one of household* hints? No. Taste is an expression of a whole system of values. And that means yours. 7 To achieve an understanding of taste means that you should have conviction* in your choices. If you look at the history of taste you will see that it is like a sketch* of the history of civilisation: for 200 years rococo*, classical, gothic*, streamlined* and then Laura Ashley have all in turn* been acceptable expressions of taste. Only gifted artists and designers can predict these changes but anyone can understand the principles. Although the history of taste has been one of change, confrontation* and reversal*, certain patterns constantly recur*. Learn these and youre in there with the tastemakers. 8 The rules are simple. No taste is to acquiesce* and act like a pygmy* enchanted* by beads* and mirrors. With no taste you take what is offered and leave your soul undisturbed. Good taste is to care and to choose, to make your own surroundings and even your own appearance more pleasing and more interesting by positive acts of discrimination*. 9 Underpinning* what is always thought to be good taste are recurrent* ideas such as refinement, restraint*, appropriateness* and good manners. These all lead to delight; the alternative* is vulgar* excess* which is ultimately* unsatisfying*. 10 So, bear these ideas in mind and look at what you own and think about the stories your possessions are telling. 11 Why do you have a gold wristwatch? This metal is inappropriate* for the intended purpose. Steel or plastic is better. Perhaps you want to look like a prosperous arms dealer*. 12 Your Constable reproduction* in a pseudo-something* frame says I know nothing about art and care less. A Heineken poster would have been more discriminating. 13 Your carpet with its hideous* pattern was designed to do one thing only: disguise dirt. Would you not be prouder with a clean simple colour? 14 Your choice of the “Honesty” pattern toaster* declares you to be the sort of person who will cheerfully admit “I love buying cynical junk*. Anything the marketing department does is good enough for me.” If “country kitchen” is the style you want, youd be better off* buying a griddle*. 15 These products are all dishonest. They would rarely be chosen by people with genuine bad taste and never by people with good. They would be purchased only by people with no taste at all . and no taste at all means the same as I dont care. 16 In the future you will be exposed to more and more choice, not less. As the speed of change brings design nearer to fashion, then decisions about taste will have to be made more and more regularly. 17 At first this will lead to an even greater profusion* of choice, perhaps even more than during the explosion of production and consumption* during the consumer revolution of 100 and more years ago. But soon people will find that when anything goes . not much really does. 18 When more consumers exercise taste, manufacturers will be required to make better and more dignified* products. It cannot be long before it is generally realised that perfect proportions and understated* elegance* are superior to meretricious* ornament, flashy surfaces and products outstanding only for the degree of social pretentiousness* they exude*. 19 If you think about it you will find that you prefer neatness and restraint. In the end these qualities are more rewarding than confusion and excess. And, remember, taste is by no means a matter of expense: a slice of good Cheddar is better than many an expensive meal. 20 These are the Rules of Taste: refinement, restraint, appropriateness and good manners. 21 Dare you be without them? 1 你所擁有的東西，正像你所追趕的社會時尚一樣，無疑能說明你的情趣。你買的每件物品都顯示出你的某種愛好，而這種愛好是你的伴侶或最親密的朋友在你們的親密交往中也沒有察覺到的。你每次購物都在運用你的情趣。2 在大規(guī)模生產(chǎn)的時代以前，情趣是屬于有教養(yǎng)的社會名流的范疇。但是，當全民都第一次成為消費者之后，情趣就走出沙龍來到了大街上。突然間，每個人都有了進行選擇的機會。3 不可能客觀存在像“高雅” 或“ 庸俗” 這樣的東西。還是小說家阿諾德貝內(nèi)特說得好：高雅的情趣也許比庸俗的好，但庸俗的情趣肯定比根本不講情趣要強。4 運用情趣并不難。你先確定你希望你所擁有的各種東西反映出何種情趣，然后再根據(jù)情況進行安排和協(xié)調(diào)。但是，請注意：并非每一個決定或選擇都會令你感到高興的。如果你要買一個瑪瑙煙灰缸，那還不如租一塊廣告牌向世界宣布：“我上當了，讓那些玩世不恭的家伙騙了，他們用華而不實的玩意兒誘我上了鉤。”5 自18 世紀首次討論情趣以來，人們就認為情趣是高貴者們賞給那些希望提高修養(yǎng)的可憐的下層人的一種恩賜。這就向倡導(dǎo)時髦風(fēng)尚的人( 他們或是維多利亞統(tǒng)治時期的貴族式官僚，或是今天專門從事介紹人們花錢買老式家具的一幫圓滑的“ 室內(nèi)裝飾家”) 打開了市場。6 但是，情趣問題只是屬于家庭的一個線索嗎? 不。情趣是一整套價值觀體系的體現(xiàn)。這是指你自己的價值觀。7 要做到理解情趣就意味著你應(yīng)該確信自己的選擇?？纯辞槿さ臍v史，你就會發(fā)現(xiàn)，它就像是人類文明史的梗概：200年來，洛可可式、古典式、哥特式、流線式以及后來的勞拉阿什利式都相繼成為受歡迎的情趣表現(xiàn)形式。雖然只有才華橫溢的藝術(shù)家和設(shè)計師才能預(yù)見這種種變化，但是任何人都能理解其中的原則。盡管情趣的歷史是一部變化、對抗和回潮的歷史，但還是有某些模式不斷反復(fù)出現(xiàn)。了解這些模式，你就會和倡導(dǎo)時髦風(fēng)尚的人相處得很好。8 規(guī)則很簡單。沒有一種情趣是默然接受和像俾格米人那樣陶醉于水晶珠和魔鏡。不懂情趣，人家給你什么你就接受什么，心靈不為所動。高雅的情趣就是要在意，要選擇，要通過積極的鑒別行動而使你的環(huán)境甚至你個人的儀表更討人喜愛，更惹人注目。9 始終被人們認為是高雅的情趣，證實有著一些反復(fù)出現(xiàn)的觀念，比如優(yōu)雅、有節(jié)制、舉止得體。這些品質(zhì)都能引起愉悅；反之，過分粗俗終歸不會令人滿意。10 因此，請將這些觀念牢記在心，看看你所擁有的東西，再想想你所擁有的東西所表明的情趣。11 你為什么要戴只金手表? 用金子做手表并不恰當。用鋼或塑料會更好些?；蛟S你是想要看起來像個發(fā)家的軍火商吧。12 你那裝在仿真畫框里的康斯特布爾油畫的復(fù)制品向世人表明：“ 我不懂藝術(shù)，也不在乎?！?若是一幅海內(nèi)肯啤酒的廣告畫倒是顯得更與眾不同。13 你那圖案難看的地毯只是為了一個目的：喬裝打扮“ 骯臟”。如果你有一塊潔凈而色彩樸素的地毯，你不覺得更自豪些嗎?14 你選擇的帶“ 誠實” 圖案的面包片烤箱則向人們宣布你是這樣一種人這種人會愉快地承認：“ 我喜歡買那些玩世不恭的人賣的蹩腳貨。不論推銷部門推出任何東西，對我來說都不錯” 如果“ 田園廚房” 是你想要的式樣，那你買個烘糕餅用的烤盤會更好些。15 這些產(chǎn)品都是騙人的。情趣真正庸俗的人也很少挑選這類東西，而情趣高雅的人則從不會挑選這類東西。只有那些根本不講情趣的人才買它們而_根本不講情趣就等于說：“ 我無所謂。”16 將來，你會越來越多地碰到需要做出選擇的情況，而不會比現(xiàn)在少。由于變化速度的加快，使得款式緊跟時尚，有關(guān)情趣的決定只能是越來越經(jīng)常的事了。17 最初這會導(dǎo)致更大量的選擇機會，可能甚至比一百多年前消費革命時期出現(xiàn)的生產(chǎn)與消費大爆炸時還要多。但是，人們很快就會發(fā)現(xiàn)，當任何產(chǎn)品都能推出來的時候，并沒有很多產(chǎn)品真正為消費者所喜愛。18 當有更多的消費者運用情趣時，就需要生產(chǎn)廠商制造出更好的、更體面的產(chǎn)品。不需要很久人們就會普遍認識到，完美的比例以及含蓄的優(yōu)雅要優(yōu)于浮華的裝飾、華而不實的外表和那些旨在炫耀社會地位非凡而引起他人看重的產(chǎn)品。19 如果你考慮一下就會發(fā)現(xiàn)，你更喜歡整齊和有節(jié)制。這些特點終歸要比混亂和無節(jié)制更令人感到滿足。還有，請記住，情趣決不是花錢多少的問題；吃一片好的切德奶酪比許多奢華的筵席還好。20 有關(guān)情趣的規(guī)則就是這些：優(yōu)雅、有節(jié)制、舉止得體。21 你敢不要這些嗎?277頁1-4段；Unit Twelve A Red Light for Scofflaws 1 Law-and-order is the longest-running and probably the best-loved political issue in U.S. history. Yet it is painfully apparent that millions of Americans who would never think of themselves as lawbreakers, let alone criminals, are taking increasing liberties with the legal codes that are designed to protect and nourish their society. Harvard Sociologist David Riesman suspects that a majority of Americans have blithely* taken to committing supposedly minor derelictions* as a matter of course. Already, Riesman says, the ethic of U.S. society is in danger of becoming this: youre a fool if you obey the rules. 2 Nothing could be more obvious than the evidence supporting Riesman. Scofflaws abound* in amazing variety. The graffitiprone* turn public surfaces into visual rubbish. Bicyclists often ride as though two wheeled vehicles are exempt* from all traffic laws. Litterbugs* convert their communities into trash dumps. Widespread flurries of ordinances* have failed to clear public places of high decibel* portable radios, just as earlier laws failed to wipe out the beer soaked hooliganism* that plagues* many parks. Tobacco addicts remain hopelessly blind to signs that say NO SMOKING. Respectably dressed pot* smokers no longer bother to duck out of* public sight to pass around a joint. The flagrant* use of cocaine is a festering scandal* in middle-and-upper class life. And then there are (hello, Everybody!) the jaywalkers*. 3 The dangers of scofflawry vary widely. The person who illegally spits on the sidewalk remains disgusting, but clearly poses* less risk to others than the company that illegally buries hazardous chemical waste in an unauthorized location. The farebeater on the subway presents less threat to life than the landlord who ignores fire safety statutes*. The most immediately and measurably dangerous scofflawry, however, also happens to be the most visible. The culprit* is the American driver, whose lawless activities today add up to a colossal* public nuisance. The hazards range from routine double parking that jams city streets to the drunk driving that kills some 25 000 people and injures at least 650 000 others yearly. Illegal speeding on open highways? New surveys show that on some interstate highways 83% of all drivers are currently ignoring the federal 55 m.p.h. speed limit 4 The most flagrant scofflaw of them all is the red-light runner. The flouting* of stop signals has got so bad in Boston that residents tell an anecdote* about a cabby* who insists that red lights are just for decoration. The power of the stoplight to control traffic seems to be waning everywhere. In Los Angeles, red-light running has become perhaps the citys most common traffic violation. In New York city, going through an intersection is like Russian roulette*. Admits Police Commissioner Robert J. McGuire: Today its a 50-50 toss-up as to whether people will stop for a red light. Meanwhile, his own police largely ignore the lawbreaking. 1 法律和秩序是美國歷史上持續(xù)時間最長的、也可能是政治上最熱門的話題。然而，顯然令人煩惱的是，數(shù)以百萬計的美國人盡管從沒有認為自己會違反法律，更不用說會成為罪犯了，卻正在越來越隨便地對待那些專為保護與造福他們的社會所制定的法規(guī)。當然，現(xiàn)今確實有些時候似乎無視法律代表了未來的潮流。哈佛大學(xué)的社會學(xué)家大衛(wèi)萊斯曼懷疑，大多數(shù)美國人喜歡犯那種他們認為是無關(guān)緊要的玩忽職守的錯誤。萊斯曼說，美國社會的倫理道德已經(jīng)處于這樣的危險之中，即 “如果你遵紀守法，你就是個傻瓜”。2 支持萊斯曼觀點的證據(jù)是再明顯不過的。違法亂紀者屢見不鮮、無奇不有，達到了驚人的程度。墻上的亂涂亂畫把公共場所的外觀糟蹋得不堪入目。騎自行車的人橫沖直撞，似乎兩個車輪的交通工具可以不受任何交通法規(guī)的束縛。亂丟垃圾的人把他們的生活區(qū)域變成了垃圾場。正如以前的法令未能掃除危害公園的滿身酒氣的流氓阿飛一樣，廣泛宣傳的法規(guī)也未能消除公共場所的高分貝便攜式收音機。吸煙成癮的人們對“不準吸煙”的告示牌熟視無睹。衣冠楚楚的吸大麻的人再也不像從前那樣躲開公眾的視線偷偷摸摸地傳遞帶大麻的香煙了。在中上層人士中毫無顧忌地使用可卡因已成為令人煩惱的丑聞。而且，(好家伙，人數(shù)真不少啊!）還有隨意橫穿馬路的人呢。3 違法行為的危害差別極大。在人行道上隨地吐痰當然令人厭惡，但是很明顯，比起那些違法地在未經(jīng)許可的地區(qū)掩埋危險化學(xué)廢料的公司對他人造成的危害要小得多。忽視防火安全法規(guī)的房主對人生命的危害當然要比在地鐵逃票的人大得多。然而，最直接和最引人注目的違法行為恰恰就是最常見的一種社會現(xiàn)象。首當其沖者就是美國的司機們。今天，他們無法無天的行為給公眾造成了極大的災(zāi)難。其危害既有日常多見的造成城市街道堵塞的并排違章停車，也有司機酒后開車造成的每年死亡大約25 000 人，傷殘至少650 000 人。那么高速公路上的違章超速行駛呢？最新調(diào)查顯示，在一些州際公路上83% 的司機現(xiàn)在根本無視聯(lián)邦法定的每小時55 英里的時速限制。4 所有違章行為中最厚顏無恥的要數(shù)闖紅燈了。在波士頓，人們對這種停止通行的信號的藐視已經(jīng)到了這樣的程度，以至在當?shù)厝酥芯谷涣鱾髦@種笑話：一名出租汽車司機居然堅持說，紅燈信號僅僅起裝飾作用。禁止通行的紅燈控制交通的效力在各地都在削弱。在洛杉磯，闖紅燈似乎已經(jīng)成為最常見的違反交通法規(guī)的行為。在紐約，過十字路口就像俄國輪盤賭一樣。警察局局長羅伯特 杰 麥克蓋爾承認：“ 現(xiàn)在人們在紅燈面前是否停下來是50% 對50% 的拋硬幣的概率?！?同時，他自己屬下的警察們也大都對這種違章行為熟視無睹。詞匯（B部分）：55、92、116、159、180、286頁，P55 B. Choose the correct answer. Only one answer is correct. 11.The story was so funny that we were all in _.A. excitementB. convulsionsC. emotionD. fixation12.Gluttony is just as much a _ as drunkenness.A. viceB. vicinityC. viciousnessD. vicissitude13.Each room is decorated with a lamp _ from the ceiling.A. droppedB. pulledC. suspendedD. fallen14.My first meeting with her often _ to my memory.A. fellsB. recallsC. refreshes D. recurs15.He writes like a(n) _: there are mistakes in every sentence.A. pupilB. illiterateC. teenagerD. school boy16.The goal is not yet _.A. to gainB. to sustainC. to restrainD. to attain17.It was reported that during the bombing, many people were killed or wounded by _ .A. flowB. blastC. currentD. stream18.She learnt to swim at once - she seemed totally without _ of the water.A. panicB. fearC. terror D. terribleness19. We raised a we must pay off it this year _. A. credit B. good sum C. loan D. mortgage 20. Some children complain that their parents at them all day. A. blame B. scold C. nag D. cryP92 , B. Choose the correct answer. Only one answer is correct. 11. The dark clouds suggest a(n) _ storm. A. impending B. surprising C. fast D. unexpected 12. Since the club owed $15 and had only $10 in the treasury, there was a _ of $5. A. sum B. deficit C. difference D. surplus13. The oil lamp _ softly on the table. A. glowed B. lighted C. sizzled D. sounded 14. It _ with you to decide. A. talks B. refers C. lies D. indicates15. He _ among the best heavyweight boxers of the past fifty years. A. projects B. shows C. displays D. rates 16. The constant turmoil in the office proved that he was an _ admini