之舟論文終稿范文.doc

之舟論文終稿范文 長(zhǎng)春工業(yè)大學(xué)學(xué)士學(xué)位論文An Explorationof theRole ofCooperative Learningin Reducing Oral EnglishAnxiety合作學(xué)習(xí)在減輕英語(yǔ)口語(yǔ)表達(dá)焦慮中的作用的探索計(jì)學(xué)位論文13頁(yè)撰寫人姓名蔡之舟學(xué)位論文完成日期_xx年6月17日評(píng)閱人_指導(dǎo)教師_王海云_教研室主任_王海云_院長(zhǎng)_崔艷輝_長(zhǎng)春工業(yè)大學(xué)學(xué)士學(xué)位論文原創(chuàng)性聲明本人鄭重聲明所呈交的學(xué)士學(xué)位論文，是本人在指導(dǎo)教師的指導(dǎo)下，獨(dú)立進(jìn)行研究工作所取得的成果。 除文中已經(jīng)注明引用的內(nèi)容外，本論文不包含任何其他個(gè)人或集體已經(jīng)發(fā)表或撰寫過(guò)的作品成果。 對(duì)本文的研究做出重要貢獻(xiàn)的個(gè)人和集體，均已在文中以明確方式標(biāo)明。 本人完全意識(shí)到本聲明的法律結(jié)果由本人承擔(dān)。 學(xué)位論文作者簽名日期年月日摘要英語(yǔ)作為國(guó)際交流的載體在各個(gè)領(lǐng)域發(fā)揮著越來(lái)越重要的作用，然而不少大學(xué)生仍不敢或很難開口講英語(yǔ)，更別提能熟練運(yùn)用英語(yǔ)和外國(guó)人進(jìn)行交流了。 這種現(xiàn)象的出現(xiàn)與外語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)焦慮密切相關(guān)。 Horwitz，MacIntyre，Gardner等資深學(xué)者對(duì)外語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)焦慮進(jìn)行了大量深入研究。 外語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)焦慮在說(shuō)方面表現(xiàn)尤為突出。 外語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)焦慮使學(xué)習(xí)者具有生理和行為特征反應(yīng)外，對(duì)考試成績(jī)、交際能力、自我形象都有負(fù)面的影響。 外語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)焦慮產(chǎn)生的原因是多方面的。 因此為了從根本上緩解大學(xué)生口語(yǔ)焦慮，必須引入一種全新的教學(xué)模式。 約翰遜發(fā)現(xiàn)合作學(xué)習(xí)就是這樣一種理想的教學(xué)模式。 合作學(xué)習(xí)策略的成熟得益于一些社會(huì)心理學(xué)理論。 作為減輕外語(yǔ)焦慮的一種有效策略得到推廣則主要是因?yàn)楹献鲗W(xué)習(xí)內(nèi)在地包含了兩個(gè)要素，積極互賴和人本主義的理念。 積極互賴就是每個(gè)成員都認(rèn)識(shí)到自己與小組內(nèi)其他成員之間是同舟共濟(jì)、榮辱與共的關(guān)系。 另一方面，作為人本主義心理學(xué)的先驅(qū)，馬斯洛認(rèn)為人最高層次的需要是實(shí)現(xiàn)自我的需要，羅杰斯則給出了全人的定義。 而合作學(xué)習(xí)模式就內(nèi)在地包含了豐富的人本主義理念，能挖掘?qū)W生的潛能、弘揚(yáng)學(xué)生的主體間性、凸顯生命的意義、培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的創(chuàng)新精神。 積極互賴和人本主義這兩大因子共同作用，口語(yǔ)焦慮的減輕才成為可能。 (1986),foreignlanguageanxiety manifestsitself whenstudents avoidmunicating difficultmessages in the targetlanguage,when theyexhibit a lack ofself-confidence orfreeze upin role-play activities,and when they forgetpreviously-learned grammaror vocabularyin evaluativesituations.Similarly,Young(1991:430)noted thatforeignlanguageanxiety canmanifest itselfvia a“distortion ofsounds,inability to produce theintonation andrhythm of thelanguage,freezing upwhen calledontoperform,and forgettingwords orphrases justlearned orsimply refusingto speakand remainingsilent.”Indeed,anxious studentsoften delayenrolling in a languageclass foras longas possible(Young,1991),and mayeven changetheir degreeprograms in order to avoid learningaforeignlanguage(Horwitz etal.,1986).The effectsof ForeignLanguageAnxietyalso extendoutside thesecond languageclassroom.A high level ofForeignLanguageAnxiety mayalso correspondwith municationapprehension,causing individuals to bequieter and less willing to municate.People whoexhibit thiskind of munication reticencecan alsosometimes beperceived asless trustworthy,less petent,less3socially andphysically attractive,tenser,less posedandlessdominant thantheir lessreticent counterparts.Anxiety isfound to haveadetrimental effecton studentsconfidence,self-esteem andlevelofparticipation.2.3Causes Inorder toeffectively copewith ForeignLanguageAnxiety,we mustfind outin L2ability constructwhich variablesmost frequentlyleads to anxiety andlook forstrategies aordingly.2.3.1Personality One of thevariables wouldbe ones personality.There aretwo thingsconnected witha learner:individual-specific perceptualinclination and psychological traitsthat areparatively stablein nature.The formerinvolves needs,motivation,interest,whereas thelatter has personality asoneof themost important aspects.As themost importantnon-intellectual factors,a soundpersonality tendsto pensatefor learningdifficulties,and moreoverremains oneof theprerequisites forsuess in any field.In psychologyopen personalityand closepersonality aredifferentiated,each influencingL2learning especiallyoral municationin a different andsignificant way.Oral municationdifficulties in particular areexperienced bya close-minded learneror onewho relieson visual-mode learning,because theformer is not inclinedto showhimself or herself directlyand fails to municatewith ease,and thelatter,used toget messagesthrough reading,is notapt totake thelisteningorspeaking approaches.Then theysuffer thehighest levelof anxietyin the oral classroom.Such oralanxiety resultingfrom the learnerspersonalitytraits posesa constantand long-term threatto the learningprocess.2.3.2Course contentAnother variablemayberelated toapathy anddisinterest on the part of thestudents becauseof inappropriatecourse content.When facedwith familiartopics learners are foundto belessanxiousand totalkwithmore ease;it isthose requiringplex preparationand organizationthat tend to resultin anxiety.It isgenerally assumedthat learnerstend toreact toa toosimple taskless motivatedand littleby littlelose interest,and similarly,tendtofeel atloss whenconfronted withtoo plicatedcontent,ending upwith highlevelof anxiety as the stressintensifies.In asurvey29%of learnersappeared embarrassedand restless,plus another38%who adoptedan escapistattitude bysimply givingno furthercontemplation,speechless,and waitingfor wordsfrom othermembers.（熊，xx）This caserightly servesas anevidence thathighlevelof anxietydiverts ones attentionaway from thelearningtask.The factthat eventhose whousually enjoyand excelat talking,when assigneda L2oral task,find themselveswordless can be explainedby itsparticular plexity,i.e.it requiresa binationof languageability andpragmatic ability,cognitive strategyand municativepetence.Therefore ithas beenproposed that the instructormake appropriateadjustments oncertain coursecontent aordingto the overall levelof anoral class.To bespecific,the oralmaterial should be madesimpler fora class4low in the overalllevel soas tomaintain theconfidence of those disadvantagedlearners,and viceversa.2.3.3Strategies usedby instructorsOral municationanxiety mayalso be associatedwithstrategies usedby instructorsin theclassroom.In generalthere aretwo strategiesused inteaching evaluation,positive andnegative.Positive waysof evaluationplace highvalue onindividual aomplishment,dignity andself-assurance.It helpslearners notonly realizetheir advantagesbut replacetheir disadvantageswith theformer.By avoidingthe negativeeffects thatmay resultfrom explicitcorrection,positive evaluationtransforms the way onemoves towardsa bettercondition inthatitemphasizes thepossibility ofhandling mistakesand weakpoints onones own,while negative evaluation looksfor learnersexpected outein anotherwise indirectway.Given theinfluence oftradition,Chinese studentsare generallysensitive aboutface,conservative andrarely spontaneous.Besides,being awareof theexistence of the instructor,direct sourceof evaluation,who isnot matchedby students in L2ability,they areconstantly torturedby thefear oferrors anddistorted articulation,speaking withpauses,hesitations,anomia;to beworse,they choosetobesilent throughoutthe entireoralclass.Here itseems thatpositive evaluationfrom the instructor playsan importantrole inreducing the oral municationanxiety andensuring anaurate andarticulate output,whereas negativeevaluation tendsto discouragethe learner,generate oralanxiety andseriously hindersa perfectoutput.Seen fromabove,anxiety canbe saidto deriveinternally fromthelearners conditionand externallyfromtheteaching process,with aninterplay withwhat an individual perceivesor experiences.It ariseswhenthelearner seesthat he or shefailstoperceive orreact effectivelyto potentialthreats broughtalong withboth internaland externalstimulus.The threatsmay involvealackof confidencein municativepetence,sense ofdefeat,hopelessness duringinteraction with others,and thefear ofnegativeevaluationfromthe instructor andpeers.Therefore,adifferentteaching strategyshould beintroduced so that asort of affective climatecanbeforged tohelp thoseshy,conservative andpassive learnersform ahealthy self-image,get ridof unreasonablefear andparticipate inoral municationwith somefort.It hasbeen foundby Johnsonthat cooperation,pared withpetitive andindividualistic efforts,typically resultsin(a)higher achievementand greaterproductivity,(b)more caring,supportive,and mittedrelationships,and(c)greater psychologicalhealth,social petence,andself-esteem.3Cooperative LearninganditsRole inReducingOralCommunication AnxietyFor afuller understanding of Johnsons conclusion,the firststep isto tracethe lineof developmentunderlying theproposing of cooperative learning.3.1Theoretical backgroundThere areat leastthree generaltheoretical perspectivesthat haveguidedresearchon5cooperation-cognitive-developmental,behavioral,and social interdependence.The cognitivedevelopmental perspectiveis largelybased on the theoriesof Piagetand Vygotsky.The workof Piagetand relatedtheorists is based on the premisethat whenindividuals co-operate on the environment,socio-cognitive conflictours thatcreates cognitivedisequilibrium,which inturn stimulatesperspective-taking abilityand cognitivedevelopment.The workof Vygotskyand relatedtheorists isbased onthe premisethat knowledgeis social,constructed fromcooperative effortsto learn,understand,and solveproblems.The behavioraltheory perspectivefocuses onthe impactof groupreinforcers andrewards onlearning.Skinner focused on groupcontingencies,Bandura focusedon imitation,and Homansas well as Thibautand Kelleyfocusedonthe balanceof rewardsand costsin socialexchange amonginterdependent individuals.While thecognitive-developmental andbehavioral theoreticalorientations have their followings,by farthemostimportant theorydealing withcooperation issocial interdependencetheory.Theorizing onsocialinterdependencebegan inthe early1900s,when oneof thefounders of the GestaltSchool ofPsychology,Kurt Koffka,proposed thatgroups weredynamic wholesin whichthe interdependenceamong memberscould vary.Oneof his colleagues,Kurt Lewinrefined Koffkas notionsinthe1920sand1930s whilestating that(a)the essenceof a group isthe interdependenceamong members(created bymon goals)which resultsinthe group beinga“dynamic whole”sothata changeinthestate ofany member or subgroupchanges thestate ofany othermemberorsubgroup,and(b)an intrinsicstate oftension withingroup membersmotivates movementtoward theaomplishment of the desiredmon goals.3.2Role Aftertracing thetheoretical backgroundof cooperativelearning,it beesnecessary tostudy whattells itapart from other methodsin bettercoping withoralmunicationanxiety.3.2.1Positive interdependenceActually thefirst andmostimportantelement instructuring cooperativelearningispositive interdependence.Positive interdependence is suessfullystructured whengroup membersperceive that they arelinkedwith eachotherinawaythatone cannotsueed unlesseveryone sueeds.Group goalsand tasks,therefore,must bedesigned andmunicated tostudentsinways thatmake thembelieve theysink orswim together.When positive interdependenceissolidly structured,it highlightsthat(a)each group members effortsare requiredand indispensablefor groupsuess and(b)each groupmember hasa uniquecontribution tomake to the joint effort becauseofhis orherresources and/or roleand taskresponsibilities.Doing socreates amitment to the suessof groupmembers as wellasones ownand isthe heartof cooperativelearning.If thereisnopositive interdependence,thereisno cooperation.There area numberof waysof structuringpositive interdependence.6Positive goal interdependence Studentsperceive that they canachieve theirlearning goalsif andonly if all the members of their groupalso attaintheir goals.The groupis unitedaround amon goal.To ensurethat studentsbelieve they“sink orswim together”and careabouthowmuch eachother learns,the teacherhas tostructure aclear groupor mutualgoal.The groupgoal alwayshas tobeapartofthe lesson.Positive reward-celebrate interdependence Each groupmember receivesthe samereward whenthe groupachieves its goals.To supplementgoalinterdependence,teachers maywish toadd jointrewards(e.g.,if allmembers ofthe groupscore90%correct orbetter onthe test,each receives5bonus points).Sometimes teachersgive students:1)agroupgrade fortheoverallproduction oftheir group,2)anindividualgrade resultingfrom tests,and3)bonus pointsifallmembers ofthe groupachieve thecriterion ontests.Positive resourceinterdependence Eachgroupmemberhas onlya portionoftheresources,information,or materialsnecessary forthetasktobepleted;themembersresources havetobebined forthe groupto achieveitsgoals.Teachers maywish to highlight thecooperative relationshipsby givingstudents limitedresources thatmust beshared orgiving eachstudent partoftherequired resourcesthatthegroup mustthen fittogether.Positive role interdependenceEachmember isassigned plementaryand interconnectedroles thatspecify responsibilitiesthatthegroup needsin order to pletethe jointtask.Teachers createroleinterdependenceamong studentswhen theyassign themplementary rolessuch asreader,recorder,checker ofunderstanding,encourager ofparticipation,and elaboratorof knowledge.Such rolesare vitaltohigh-quality learning.The roleof checker,for example,focuses onperiodically askingeach groupmate toexplain whatis beinglearned.Caring andmitted friendshipse fromsuch sense of mutualaomplishment,mutual pridein jointwork,and thebonding thatresults fromjoint efforts.As psychologicalhealth isbuilt onthe internalizationofthecaring andrespect receivedfrom loved-ones,it iseasier forindividualstoget freeof psychologicalpathology suchas anxiety,fear offailure.The healthierpsychologically individualsare,ontheother hand,the morecaring andmitted theirrelationships are,the betterable theyare towork withothers toachieve mutualgoals.Each ofthe outesof cooperativeefforts(effort toachieve,quality ofrelationships,andpsychologicalhealth)influences theothers and,therefore,theyarelikely tobe foundtogether(Johnson,D.&Johnson,R.1989).Since eachoute caninduce theothers,you arelikely tofind them together.They area packagewitheachoute adoor intoall three.And thisisthevirtuous circlecreated bypositiveinterdependence.It furthermore,provides the basis forbuilding andmaintaining life-long friendships,loving andcaring families,and cohesiveneighborhoods.A CaseStudy7“Information gap”is anexpected principlein thisrespect.For example,each memberofagroup hassome informationthat othersdonothave sothey haveto manage a taskthrough theexchange ofinformation.The instructoris expectedto designa situationcontaining suchgap frommanifold anglesto createa naturaloasion forlanguage use.Below isa decision-making case.Jersey:You willgraduate froma famousuniversity thisJuly.You arethinking ofteaching studentsinarural area.So youwant todiscuss thiswith yourfamily inordertoseek theirsupport.Jerseys father(a bossofabig pany):You hopeyour sonwill helpyou managethe panyafter graduation.So youdont agreethat Jerseywill beea teacherand try to persuadehim togive up.Jerseys mother(a universityteacher):Although youlove yourson verymuch,you knowthat teachersareurgentlyneeded infaraway ruralareas.Try toconvince Jerseyto dowhat hewishes andtrytofind waysto persuadeyour husband to supportJersey.In thesituation above“information gap”exists.Jerseys parentshold differentopinions aboutwhether heshouldbea teacherinafaraway ruralarea andinorderto decideonthebusiness thefamily haveto resortto anexchange ofideas.In this3-party activityeachmemberis supposedto expresstheir opinionsand tomanageaconsensus throughnegotiations.No goodor poorlearnersaredifferentiated therein;onthecontrary,the suessofagroup reliesonthejointeffortfrom eachstudent.They eachhavetheir own shareofthetask andmotivated bythe concernofthegroups goodthey tendto devotethemselves topre-assembling,thinking andnegotiating.Whats moreone canreceive feedbackand helpfromotherpartners withinthegroup,which isnothing lessthan astimulus forautonomous improvementin onesoralperformance.3.2.2Humanistic valuesAnother attractionofcooperativelearning wouldbe thatit containsmanifoldhumanisticvalues.They arethe themeof investigationinthearea of humanisticpsychology,aswellas partof whatmakes“whole person”education inthe eyesofthosepsychologists.Implications fromRogers andMaslow Humanisticpsychology isa schoolof psychologythat emergedinthe1950sinreaction toboth behaviorismand psychoanalysis.The humanisticapproach hasits rootsin existentialistthought.The majortheorists consideredtohaveprepared theground forHumanistic Psychologyare AbrahamMaslow andCarl Rogers.Maslow isnoted forhis conceptualizationofa“hierarchy of needs”.After fulfillmentof basieeds(senseofsecurity),man ascendsthe stepsofthepyramid until,at best,heorshe reachesself-actualization,which Maslowinterprets as“What aman canbe,he mustbe”.This formsthebasisoftheperceived needfor self-actualization.This levelofneedpertains towhat apersons full potential isand realizingthat potential.Maslow describesthis desireasthe desire to bee moreand morewhat8one is,tobeeeverything thatone iscapable ofbeing.Maslow studiedmentally healthyindividuals;He realizedthat allthe individualshe studiedhad similarpersonalitytraits:aeptance ofothers andthemselves despiteimperfections,thedesireto knowand understand,etc.Furthermore henoted,totheextent aperson findscooperative socialfulfillment,he establishesmeaningful relationshipswithotherpeople andthe largerworld.In otherwords,he establishesmeaningful connectionstoanexternal realityan essentialponent ofself-actualization.In contrast,totheextent thatvital needsfind selfishand petitivefulfillment,apersonacquires hostileemotions and limited externalrelationshipshis awarenessremains internalandlimited.Carl Rogerspresents whatis goodlife aswhere theorganism continuallyaims tofulfill theirfullpotential.He listedcharacteristics ofa fullyfunctioning person:open toother beingsexperiences andperceptions,willingtolive inthe present,organismic trusting,knowing theboundary ofindividual freedom,contribution tootherslives.Rogers developsperson-centered therapyand iscentered onthe clientscapacity forself-direction andunderstandingofhisorher owndevelopment.Inthedevelopment ofthe selfconcept Rogersaw conditionaland unconditional positive regardas key.Those raisedin anenvironment ofunconditional positiveregard havethe opportunityto fullyactualize themselves.Those raisedin anenvironment ofconditionalpositiveregard onlyfeel worthyif theymatch conditions(what Rogersdescribes asconditions ofworth)that havebeen laiddown byothers.As auniversity studentis rapidlygrowing psychologicallymature,heorshe isquite concernedabout whatothers maythink ofthem,seeking respectand pliment.Losing sightof this,a greatmany teachingmethods overemphasizenorms andrules,with negativefeedback frequentlyused.When astudent,especially ifunprepared,is requiredtoproduceoutput atan inappropriatestage,heorshe willfeel threatened,mentally defensi