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附錄1.1TheNatureofDesignWestartwithabasicassumptionaboutdesignDesignisapurposefulactivityWehaveinmindsomeideaofadesiredstateDesigninvolvesaconsciouseffortToarriveatastateofaffairsinwhichcertaincharacteristicsareevidentTherealizationthatasharpenedpieceofwoodpickedupfromthegroundcanbeusedtopenetrateotherobjectsdoesnotconstituteanactofdesignTherealizationthatifabluntpieceofwoodissharpeneditcanbeusedtopenetrateotherobjects，howeverconstitutesarudimentarydesignactThelatterprocessisessentiallypurposeful,whiletheformerisopportunisticDesignisalsotheprocessoforiginatingsystemsandpredictinghowthesesystemswillfulfillobjectivesWhenwedesignwehaveanendinmind,butthisenddoesnotconstitutethefinalartifactThedesignismerelyadescriptionoftheartifactfromwhichpredictionsofperformancecanbemadeAdesignisthereforeanabstraction，providingadescriptionofanartifactthecanbeinterpretedbysomeotheragentforpurposesofmanufactureorconstruction-1IntroductiontoKnowledge-BasedDesignAdesigncanthereforeconsistofasetofinstructionsorsomeotherabstractionsuitablef0，interpretationandrealizationasaphysicalartifactMorespecifically,designhasbeenusefullydescribedasagoal-directedactivitythatinvolvesthemakingofdecisions(Archer1969)WecantranslatethisdefinitionintotheprocessofproducingasetofdescriptionsofanlatethisdefinitionintotheprocessofproducingasetofdescriptionsofanartifactthatsatisfyasetofgivenperformancerequirementsandconstraintsDesignbeginswiththerealizationofneeddissatisfactionwithexistingconditionsandarealizationthatsomecourseofactionmustbetakenAgoalisset,thepurposeofwhichistoattainastateofsatisfactioninresponsetotheneed,andtheabilitytosetgoalsandplanfortheirattainmentisapowerfulandessentialhumancapabilityWecanevenstriveforgoalsthatcannotberealized,suchasthepotofgoldattherainbowsendEvengrantingthisassumptionabouttheprimacyofgoalsindesign,weareatonlytheedgeofunderstandingwhatdesignisForastart,weoftenfinditspecifythenatureofthedesiredstateGoalsthemselvesaretheproductsofprocessesthatarelittleunderstoodAstrongdeterminantofthegoalswesetisoursystemofvaluestheframeworksforourmodelsofreality,ourappreciationofwhatisworthstrivingforThesevaryfromculturetocultureandbetweenindividualsAndindividualsarenotaversetochangingtheirvaluesystemstosuitchangesinsituationEvenwithinaparticularcultureandgivenaparticulargoalwithwhichmostwouldagreesuchasthepublicgooditisunlikelythateveryonewouldinterpretthatgoalinquitethesamewayDifferentdesignerswouldsetdifferentobjectivesGivenanagreementonobjectives，fewerwouldagreeonthewaytoreachtheseobjectivesFurthermore，goalsappeartobeaproductofwhatispossibleGoalsrarelybehaveasautonomousentities，eachofwhichcanberealizedindependentlyGoalsinteractWeoftencannotknowwhatispossibleuntilwehaveundertakensomekindofexplorationDesignsometimesappearsasanactivityofexploration，inwhichpartialresponsesleadtotheredefinitionofgoals(Bill1987)DesignalsoappearstobeillstructuredinthesensethatthereisnostraightforwardprocesstobefollowedAdesignermaystartwithgoalsandworktowardthedesignofobjectsthatwillsatisfythesegoals。ormaybeginwiththeobjectsandcheckwhetherthepropertiesoftheseobjectsmatchthoseoftherequirements。Thismayinvolvea“topdown”approach，a”bottomup”approach，ofacombinationofapproachesTosolveaproblemofanysizeandcomplexity,manyapproacheswillbeattempted,perhapsinparallelTherealsoappearstobenofixedstartingpointAdesignermayfollowacertainlineormayattacktheproblematdifferentpointsofcourse，goalsarenottheonlymeansofdecidingontheformofanartifactDesignsoftenappeartobearesponsetosomeinvisiblesystemofconventionsasmuchastostatedobjectivesSomeconventions，oftenreferredtoasstyle，Maybepeculiartoindividualdesigners，savingthemfromagreatdealofreinventionButdesignstyleisinevidenceasmuchinthewaycomponentsarefittedtogetherintheoutsideformofthebodyofthecarWemustunderstandhowtoaccountforthisphenomenonincomputeraideddesign12ModelsofDesignHowweaddressthenatureofdesignincomputeraideddesigndependsonthemodelsweemploytodescribedesignInthissectionweconsidertheroleofmodels，alsoreviewingsomeinfluentialmodelsthatassistinbringingdesignandcomputersystemstogetherProblemsariseinattemptingtoformalizedesignComparedwithmanyotherdisciplines，ourunderstandingofdesignisatafledgingstageInthisbookTheSciencesoftheArtificial，Simon(1969)arguedthatsuchathingasthescienceofdesign”ispossible，ifnotyetrealizedIfweacceptthatsomedaywewillbeabletotalkintermsofwellestablishedtheoriesandpractices，thenwemustalsoconcedethatthestudyofdesigniscurrentlyataprescience”phaseThisistheterminologyofKuhn(1970)，whoarguesthatasciencemustpassthroughseveralphasesbeforeitconstitutesaformaldisciplineMaturescienceisthatstateofadisciplineinwhichthereisacoherenttraditionofscientificresearchandpractice，embodyinglaw,theory,application，andinstrumentationIfweseekthiskindofmaturity,wecantakeconsolationfromthepatternsetbyotherdisciplinesthathaveblossomedintofull-fledgedsciencesTherearetwomajorapproachestoincreasingunderstandinginaparticulardiscipline：casestudiesandmodelsThecase-studyapproachwasprevalentinsuchfoundlingsubjectsasearlypsychology,priortotheestablishmentofanyappropriateexperimentalmethodCasestudiesareparticularlyprevalentindiscussionsofarchitecturalandengineeringdesignSomedesignphenomenon，suchasthedesignofaparticularbuilding,isobservedandanalyzed,perhapsinanattempttoextractgeneralprinciplesIntheabsenceofacleartheoryofwhatisgoingon,thereisaheavyrelianceoninterpretationThisapproachisalsoprevalentincomputeraideddesignresearch，whereitiscommonfirsttodeviseacomputerapplicationonthebasisofuncertainprinciples，andthenassessthevalueoftheoperationinretrospectThesecondapproachisarelianceonmodelsHereweconsidermodelsaslimitedabstractionsofparticularphenomena,lessambitiousthantheoriesWhereastheoriesattempttoexplainobservedphenomenaandpredictbehaviorsthataresomehowconnecting,modelsarecontentwithexplanationandpredictionwithinasubsetofconnectedInphysicsthereexistawavemodelandaparticlemodelforthebehavioroflightOnitsown，neithermodelgivesawhollysatisfactoryexplanationofthebehavioroflightIndesign，therefore，wemustbecontentwithmodelthataccountfordesignbehaviorTheyenableustoexplainandpredictcertainphenomena,butwemayhavetopositmorethanonemodelandthesemodelsmayappearcontradictory，Inthisbookbothapproachestheuseofcasestudiesandtheexplorationofdesignmodelsareinevidence，thoughwefavorthelatterOneoftheproblemswiththecurrentstateofdesignunderstanding,ofcourse，isthatwearenotevensureifweareontheroadtoamaturescienceWecannotknowforcertainuntilwegetthereSomesaythatwecannotinheritthecredibilityofsciencebyclaimingthatourstudyisaprescienceInthiscasewecanargueformodelsofdesignonlyfromapragmaticpointofviewTheargumentgoessomethinglikethisDesignisahumanactivitythateludesformaldescriptionWewishtousecomputerstoassistinthedesignprocessComputersoperateonlywithformal，repeatable，andrigorouslydefinedprocessesIfwerequireacomputersystemtosimulatesomekindofdesi2nbehaviorthenwemustformulatemodelsimperfectastheymaybeofthedesignprocessThemodelsmayhaveverylittlevalueasdescriptionsofhumanprocessesTheyserveourpurpose，however,iftheyresultinusefulsystemsthatfitintoadesigneromodeofoperationWeshouldnotassumethatthereisaneatdefinitionofwhatconstitutestheoriesofquantumphysics，thereisratherlessagreementaboutscienceitself(Charmers，1982)Thestudyofscienceisnot,initself,ascienceFromthefieldofdesignresearcher,Cross,Haughton，andWalkerhavesuggestedthat,sincethereisnotyetanyuniformunderstandingofscience，itisnotprudenttolooktoascienceofdesignTheybelievethatdesertbelongstotherealmoftechnology,orappliedscienceButweneednotachieveascienceofdesignbeforeo