胡壯麟語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程復(fù)習(xí)及答案

胡壯麟語(yǔ)言學(xué)復(fù)習(xí)及答案CHAPTERIINTRODUCTIONIDECIDEWHETHEREACHOFTHEFOLLOWINGSTATEMENTSISTRUEORFALSE1LINGUISTICSISGENERALLYDEFINEDASTHESCIENTIFICSTUDYOFLANGUAGE2LINGUISTICSSTUDIESPARTICULARLANGUAGE,NOTLANGUAGESINGENERAL3ASCIENTIFICSTUDYOFLANGUAGEISBASEDONWHATTHELINGUISTTHINKS4INTHESTUDYOFLINGUISTICS,HYPOTHESESFORMEDSHOULDBEBASEDONLANGUAGEFACTSANDCHECKEDAGAINSTTHEOBSERVEDFACTS5GENERALLINGUISTICSISGENERALLYTHESTUDYOFLANGUAGEASAWHOLE6GENERALLINGUISTICS,WHICHRELATESITSELFTOTHERESEARCHOFOTHERAREAS,STUDIESTHEBASICCONCEPTS,THEORIES,DESCRIPTIONS,MODELSANDMETHODSAPPLICABLEINANYLINGUISTICSTUDY7PHONETICSISDIFFERENTFROMPHONOLOGYINTHATTHELATTERSTUDIESTHECOMBINATIONSOFTHESOUNDSTOCONVEYMEANINGINCOMMUNICATION8MORPHOLOGYSTUDIESHOWWORDSCANBEFORMEDTOPRODUCEMEANINGFULSENTENCES9THESTUDYOFTHEWAYSINWHICHMORPHEMESCANBECOMBINEDTOFORMWORDSISCALLEDMORPHOLOGY10SYNTAXISDIFFERENTFROMMORPHOLOGYINTHATTHEFORMERNOTONLYSTUDIESTHEMORPHEMES,BUTALSOTHECOMBINATIONOFMORPHEMESINTOWORDSANDWORDSINTOSENTENCES11THESTUDYOFMEANINGINLANGUAGEISKNOWNASSEMANTICS12BOTHSEMANTICSANDPRAGMATICSSTUDYMEANINGS13PRAGMATICSISDIFFERENTFROMSEMANTICSINTHATPRAGMATICSSTUDIESMEANINGNOTINISOLATION,BUTINCONTEXT14SOCIALCHANGESCANOFTENBRINGABOUTLANGUAGECHANGES15SOCIOLINGUISTICSISTHESTUDYOFLANGUAGEINRELATIONTOSOCIETY16MODERNLINGUISTICSISMOSTLYPRESCRIPTIVE,BUTSOMETIMESDESCRIPTIVE17MODERNLINGUISTICSISDIFFERENTFROMTRADITIONALGRAMMAR18ADIACHRONICSTUDYOFLANGUAGEISTHEDESCRIPTIONOFLANGUAGEATSOMEPOINTINTIME19MODERNLINGUISTICSREGARDSTHEWRITTENLANGUAGEASPRIMARY,NOTTHEWRITTENLANGUAGE20THEDISTINCTIONBETWEENCOMPETENCEANDPERFORMANCEWASPROPOSEDBYFDESAUSSUREIIFILLINEACHOFTHEFOLLOWINGBLANKSWITHONEWORDWHICHBEGINSWITHTHELETTERGIVEN21CHOMSKYDEFINES“COMPETENCE”ASTHEIDEALUSERSK_OFTHERULESOFHISLANGUAGE22LANGUEREFERSTOTHEA_LINGUISTICSYSTEMSHAREDBYALLTHEMEMBERSOFASPEECHCOMMUNITYWHILETHEPAROLEISTHECONCRETEUSEOFTHECONVENTIONSANDAPPLICATIONOFTHERULES23D_ISONEOFTHEDESIGNFEATURESOFHUMANLANGUAGEWHICHREFERSTOTHEPHENO廣告網(wǎng)址NTHATLANGUAGECONSISTSOFTWOLEVELSALOWERLEVELOFMEANINGLESSINDIVIDUALSOUNDSANDAHIGHERLEVELOFMEANINGFULUNITS24LANGUAGEISASYSTEMOFA_VOCALSYMBOLSUSEDFORHUMANCOMMUNICATION25THEDISCIPLINETHATSTUDIESTHERULESGOVERNINGTHEFORMATIONOFWORDSINTOPERMISSIBLESENTENCESINLANGUAGESISCALLEDS_26HUMANCAPACITYFORLANGUAGEHASAG_BASIS,BUTTHEDETAILSOFLANGUAGEHAVETOBETAUGHTANDLEARNED27P_REFERSTOTHEREALIZATIONOFLANGUEINACTUALUSE28FINDINGSINLINGUISTICSTUDIESCANOFTENBEAPPLIEDTOTHESETTLEMENTOFSOMEPRACTICALPROBLEMSTHESTUDYOFSUCHAPPLICATIONSISGENERALLYKNOWNASA_LINGUISTICS29LANGUAGEISP_INTHATITMAKESPOSSIBLETHECONSTRUCTIONANDINTERPRETATIONOFNEWSIGNALSBYITSUSERSINOTHERWORDS,THEYCANPRODUCEANDUNDERSTANDANINFINITELYLARGENUMBEROFSENTENCESWHICHTHEYHAVENEVERHEARDBEFORE30LINGUISTICSISGENERALLYDEFINEDASTHES_STUDYOFLANGUAGEIIITHEREAREFOURCHOICESFOLLOWINGEACHSTATEMENTMARKTHECHOICETHATCANBESTCOMPLETETHESTATEMENT31IFALINGUISTICSTUDYDESCRIBESANDANALYZESTHELANGUAGEPEOPLEACTUALLYUSE,ITISSAIDTOBE_APRESCRIPTIVEBANALYTICCDESCRIPTIVEDLINGUISTIC32WHICHOFTHEFOLLOWINGISNOTADESIGNFEATUREOFHUMANLANGUAGEAARBITRARINESSBDISPLACEMENTCDUALITYDMEANINGFULNESS33MODERNLINGUISTICSREGARDSTHEWRITTENLANGUAGEAS_APRIMARYBCORRECTCSECONDARYDSTABLE34INMODERNLINGUISTICS,SPEECHISREGARDEDASMOREBASICTHANWRITING,BECAUSE_AINLINGUISTICEVOLUTION,SPEECHISPRIORTOWRITINGBSPEECHPLAYSAGREATERROLETHANWRITINGINTERMSOFTHEAMOUNTOFINFORMATIONCONVEYEDCSPEECHISALWAYSTHEWAYINWHICHEVERYNATIVESPEAKERACQUIRESHISMOTHERTONGUEDALLOFTHEABOVE35AHISTORICALSTUDYOFLANGUAGEISA_STUDYOFLANGUAGEASYNCHRONICBDIACHRONICCPRESCRIPTIVEDCOMPARATIVE36SAUSSURETOOKAN_VIEWOFLANGUAGE,WHILECHOMSKYLOOKSATLANGUAGEFROMA_POINTOFVIEWASOCIOLOGICALPSYCHOLOGICALBPSYCHOLOGICALSOCIOLOGICALCAPPLIEDPRAGMATICDSEMANTICANDLINGUISTIC37ACCORDINGTOFDESAUSSURE,_REFERSTOTHEABSTRACTLINGUISTICSYSTEMSHAREDBYALLTHEMEMBERSOFASPEECHCOMMUNITYAPAROLEBPERFORMANCECLANGUEDLANGUAGE38LANGUAGEISSAIDTOBEARBITRARYBECAUSETHEREISNOLOGICALCONNECTIONBETWEEN_ANDMEANINGSASENSEBSOUNDSCOBJECTSDIDEAS39LANGUAGECANBEUSEDTOREFERTOCONTEXTSREMOVEDFROMTHEIMMEDIATESITUATIONSOFTHESPEAKERTHISFEATUREISCALLED_,ADISPLACEMENTBDUALITYCFLEXIBILITYDCULTURALTRANSMISSION40THEDETAILSOFANYLANGUAGESYSTEMISPASSEDONFROMONEGENERATIONTOTHENEXTTHROUGH_,RATHERTHANBYINSTINCTALEARNINGBTEACHINGCBOOKSDBOTHAANDBIVDEFINETHEFOLLOWINGTERMS41LINGUISTICS42PHONOLOGY43SYNTAX44PRAGMATICS45PSYCHOLINGUISTICS46LANGUAGE47PHONETICS48MORPHOLOGY49SEMANTICS50SOCIOLINGUISTICS51APPLIEDLINGUISTICS52ARBITRARINESS53PRODUCTIVITY54DISPLACEMENT55DUALITY56DESIGNFEATURES57COMPETENCE58PERFORMANCE59LANGUE60PAROLEVANSWERTHEFOLLOWINGQUESTIONSASCOMPREHENSIVELYASPOSSIBLEGIVEEXAMPLESFORILLUSTRATIONIFNECESSARY61LANGUAGEISGENERALLYDEFINEDASASYSTEMOFARBITRARYVOCALSYMBOLSUSEDFORHUMANCOMMUNICATIONEXPLAINITINDETAIL62WHATARETHEDESIGNFEATURESOFHUMANLANGUAGEILLUSTRATETHEMWITHEXAMPLES63HOWISMODERNLINGUISTICSDIFFERENTFROMTRADITIONALGRAMMAR64HOWDOYOUUNDERSTANDTHEDISTINCTIONBETWEENASYNCHRONICSTUDYANDADIACHRONICSTUDY65WHYDOESMODERNLINGUISTICSREGARDTHESPOKENFORMOFLANGUAGEASPRIMARY,NOTTHEWRITTEN66WHATARETHEMAJORDISTINCTIONSBETWEENLANGUEANDPAROLE67HOWDOYOUUNDERSTANDCOMPETENCEANDPERFORMANCE68SAUSSURESDISTINCTIONBETWEENLANGUEANDPAROLESEEMSSIMILARTOCHOMSKYSDISTINCTIONBETWEENCOMPETENCEANDPERFORMANCEWHATDOYOUTHINKARETHEIRMAJORDIFFERENCES69DOYOUTHINKHUMANLANGUAGEISENTIRELYARBITRARYWHYIDECIDEWHETHEREACHOFTHEFOLLOWINGSTATEMENTSISTRUEORFALSELT2F3F4T5T6F7T8F9T10F11T12T13T14T15T16F17T18F19F20FIIFILLINEACHOFTHEFOLLOWINGBLANKSWITHONEWORDWHICHBEGINSWITHTHELETTERGIVEN21KNOWLEDGE22ABSTRACT23DUALITY24ARBITRARY25SYNTAX26GENETIC27PAROLE28APPLIED29PRODUCTIVE30SCIENTIFICORSYSTEMATICIIITHEREAREFOURCHOICESFOLLOWINGEACHSTATEMENTMARKTHECHOICETHATCANBESTCOMPLETETHESTATEMENT3LC32D33C34D35B36A37C38B39A40DIVDEFINETHEFOLLOWINGTERMS41LINGUISTICSLINGUISTICSISGENERALLYDEFINEDASTHESCIENTIFICSTUDYOFLANGUAGE42PHONOLOGYTHESTUDYOFHOWSOUNDSAREPUTTOGETHERANDUSEDINCOMMUNICATIONISCALLEDPHONOLOGY43SYNTAXTHESTUDYOFHOWMORPHEMESANDWORDSARECOMBINEDTOFORMSENTENCESISCALLEDSYNTAX44PRAGMATICSTHESTUDYOFMEANINGINCONTEXTOFUSEISCALLEDPRAGMATICS45PSYCHOLINGUISTICSTHESTUDYOFLANGUAGEWITHREFERENCETOTHEWORKINGSOFMINDISCALLEDPSYCHOLINGUISTICS46LANGUAGELANGUAGEISASYSTEMOFARBITRARYVOCALSYMBOLSUSEDFORHUMANCOMMUNICATION47PHONETICSTHESTUDYOFSOUNDSWHICHAREUSEDINLINGUISTICCOMMUNICATIONISCALLEDPHONETICS48MORPHOLOGYTHESTUDYOFTHEWAYINWHICHMORPHEMESAREARRANGEDTOFORMWORDSISCALLEDMORPHOLOGY49SEMANTICSTHESTUDYOFMEANINGINLANGUAGEISCALLEDSEMANTICS50SOCIOLINGUISTICSTHESTUDYOFLANGUAGEWITHREFERENCETOSOCIETYISCALLEDSOCIOLINGUISTICS51APPLIEDLINGUISTICSINANARROWSENSE,APPLIEDLINGUISTICSREFERSTOTHEAPPLICATIONOFLINGUISTICPRINCIPLESANDTHEORIESTOLANGUAGETEACHINGANDLEARNING,ESPECIALLYTHETEACHINGOFFOREIGNANDSECONDLANGUAGESINABROADSENSE,ITREFERSTOTHEAPPLICATIONOFLINGUISTICFINDINGSTOTHESOLUTIONOFPRACTICALPROBLEMSSUCHASTHERECOVERYOFSPEECHABILITY52ARBITRARINESSITISONEOFTHEDESIGNFEATURESOFLANGUAGEITMEANSTHATTHEREISNOLOGICALCONNECTIONBETWEENMEANINGSANDSOUNDS53PRODUCTIVITYLANGUAGEISPRODUCTIVEORCREATIVEINTHATITMAKESPOSSIBLETHECONSTRUCTIONANDINTERPRETATIONOFNEWSIGNALSBYITSUSERS54DISPLACEMENTDISPLACEMENTMEANSTHATLANGUAGECANBEUSEDTOREFERTOTHINGSWHICHAREPRESENTORNOTPRESENT,REALORIMAGINEDMATTERSINTHEPAST,PRESENT,ORFUTURE,ORINFARAWAYPLACESINOTHERWORDS,LANGUAGECANBEUSEDTOREFERTOCONTEXTSREMOVEDFROMTHEIMMEDIATESITUATIONSOFTHESPEAKER55DUALITYTHEDUALITYNATUREOFLANGUAGEMEANSTHATLANGUAGEISASYSTEM,WHICHCONSISTSOFTWOSETSOFSTRUCTURE,ORTWOLEVELS,ONEOFSOUNDSANDTHEOTHEROFMEANINGS56DESIGNFEATURESDESIGNFEATURESREFERTOTHEDEFININGPROPERTIESOFHUMANLANGUAGETHATDISTINGUISHITFROMANYANIMALSYSTEMOFCOMMUNICATION57COMPETENCECHOMSKYDEFINESCOMPETENCEASTHEIDEALUSERSKNOWLEDGEOFTHERULESOFHISLANGUAGE,58PERFORMANCEPERFORMANCEISTHEACTUALREALIZATIONOFTHEKNOWLEDGEOFTHERULESINLINGUISTICCOMMUNICATION59LANGUELANGUEREFERSTOTHEABSTRACTLINGUISTICSYSTEMSHAREDBYALLTHEMEMBERSOFASPEECHCOMMUNITYLANGUEISTHESETOFCONVENTIONSANDRULESWHICHLANGUAGEUSERSALLHAVETOFOLLOWLANGUEISRELATIVELYSTABLE,ITDOESNOTCHANGEFREQUENTLY60PAROLEPAROLEREFERSTOTHEREALIZATIONOFLANGUEINACTUALUSEPAROLEISTHECONCRETEUSEOFTHECONVENTIONSANDTHEAPPLICATIONOFTHERULESPAROLEVARIESFROMPERSONTOPERSON,ANDFROMSITUATIONTOSITUATIONVANSWERTHEFOLLOWINGQUESTIONSASCOMPREHENSIVELYASPOSSIBLEGIVEEXAMPLESFORILLUSTRATIONIFNECESSARY61LANGUAGEISGENERALLYDEFINEDASASYSTEMOFARBITRARYVOCALSYMBOLSUSEDFORHUMANCOMMUNICATIONEXPLAINITINDETAILFIRSTOFALL,LANGUAGEISASYSTEM,BECAUSEELEMENTSOFLANGUAGEARECOMBINEDACCORDINGTORULESSECONDLY,LANGUAGEISARBITRARYBECAUSETHEREISNOINTRINSICCONNECTIONBETWEENFORMANDMEANING,ORBETWEENTHESIGNANDWHATITSTANDSFORDIFFERENTLANGUAGESHAVEDIFFERENTWORDSFORTHESAMEOBJECTINTHEWORLDTHISFACTISAGOODILLUSTRATIONOFTHEARBITRARYNATUREOFLANGUAGETHISALSOEXPLAINSTHESYMBOLICNATUREOFLANGUAGEWORDSAREJUSTSYMBOLSTHEYAREASSOCIATEDWITHOBJECTS,ACTIONS,IDEAS,ETCBYCONVENTIONTHIRDLY,LANGUAGEISVOCALBECAUSETHEPRIMARYMEDIUMISSOUNDFORALLLANGUAGES,NOMATTERHOWWELLDEVELOPEDTHEIRWRITINGSYSTEMSARETHETERM“HUMAN“INTHEDEFINITIONINDICATESTHATLANGUAGEISPOSSESSEDBYHUMANBEINGSONLYANDISVERYDIFFERENTFROMTHECOMMUNICATIONSYSTEMSOFOTHERLIVINGCREATURESTHETERM“COMMUNICATION“MEANSTHATLANGUAGEMAKESITPOSSIBLEFORITSUSERSTOTALKTOEACHOTHERANDFULFILLTHEIRCOMMUNICATIVENEEDS62WHATARETHEDESIGNFEATURESOFHUMANLANGUAGEILLUSTRATETHEMWITHEXAMPLES1ARBITRARINESSASMENTIONEDEARLIER,THEARBITRARYPROPERTYOFLANGUAGEMEANSTHATTHEREISNOLOGICALCONNECTIONBETWEENMEANINGSANDSOUNDSFORINSTANCE,THEREISNONECESSARYRELATIONSHIPBETWEENTHEWORDELEPHANTANDTHEANIMALITSYMBOLIZESINADDITION,DIFFERENTSOUNDSAREUSEDTOREFERTOTHESAMEOBJECTINDIFFERENTLANGUAGES,ANDEVENWITHINTHESAMELANGUAGE,THESAMESOUNDDOESNOTREFERTOTHESAMETHINGHOWEVER,LANGUAGEISNOTENTIRELYARBITRARYTHEREAREWORDSWHICHARECREATEDINTHEIMITATIONOFSOUNDSBYSOUNDS,SUCHASCRASH,BANGINENGLISHBESIDES,SOMECOMPOUNDWORDSAREALSONOTENTIRELYARBITRARYBUTTHENONARBITRARYWORDSAREQUITELIMITEDINNUMBERTHEARBITRARYNATUREOFLANGUAGEMAKESITPOSSIBLEFORLANGUAGETOHAVEANUNLIMITEDSOURCEOFEXPRESSIONS2PRODUCTIVITYLANGUAGEISPRODUCTIVEORCREATIVEINTHATITMAKESPOSSIBLETHECONSTRUCTIONANDINTERPRETATIONOFNEWSIGNALSBYITSUSERSTHISISWHYTHEYCANPRODUCEANDUNDERSTANDANINFINITELYLARGENUMBEROFSENTENCES,INCLUDINGSENTENCESTHATTHEYHAVENEVERSAIDORHEARDBEFORETHEYCANSENDMESSAGESWHICHNOONEELSEHASEVERSENTBEFOREPRODUCTIVITYISUNIQUETOHUMANLANGUAGEMOSTANIMALCOMMUNICATIONSYSTEMSAPPEARTOBEHIGHLYRESTRICTEDWITHRESPECTTOTHENUMBEROFDIFFERENTSIGNALSTHATTHEIRUSERSCANSENDANDRECEIVE3DUALITYTHEDUALITYNATUREOFLANGUAGEMEANSTHATLANGUAGEISASYSTEM,WHICHCONSISTSOFTWOSETSOFSTRUCTURE,ORTWOLEVELS,ONEOFSOUNDSANDTHEOTHEROFMEANINGSATTHELOWERORTHEBASICLEVEL,THEREISTHESTRUCTUREOFSOUNDS,WHICHAREMEANINGLESS,DISCRETE,INDIVIDUALSOUNDSBUTTHESOUNDSOFLANGUAGECANBECOMBINEDACCORDINGTORULESINTOUNITSOFMEANINGSUCHASMORPHEMESANDWORDS,WHICH,ATTHEHIGHERLEVEL,CANBEARRANGEDINTOSENTENCESTHISDUALITYOFSTRUCTUREORDOUBLEARTICULATIONOFLANGUAGEENABLESITSUSERSTOTALKABOUTANYTHINGWITHINTHEIRKNOWLEDGENOANIMALCOMMUNICATIONSYSTEMHASDUALITYOREVENCOMESNEARTOPOSSESSINGIT4DISPLACEMENTDISPLACEMENTMEANSTHATLANGUAGECANBEUSEDTOREFERTOTHINGSWHICHAREPRESENTORNOTPRESENT,REALORIMAGINEDMATTERSINTHEPAST,PRESENT,ORFUTURE,ORINFARAWAYPLACESINOTHERWORDS,LANGUAGECANBEUSEDTOREFERTOCONTEXTSREMOVEDFROMTHEIMMEDIATESITUATIONSOFTHESPEAKERANIMALCALLSAREMAINLYUTTEREDINRESPONSETOIMMEDIATECHANGESOFSITUATION5CULTURALTRANSMISSIONHUMANBEINGSWEREBORNWITHTHEABILITYTOACQUIRELANGUAGE,BUTTHEDETAILSOFANYLANGUAGEARENOTGENETICALLYTRANSMITTEDORPASSEDDOWNBYINSTINCTTHEYHAVETOBETAUGHTANDLEARNED,BUTANIMALCALLSYSTEMSAREGENETICALLYTRANSMITTED63HOWISMODERNLINGUISTICSDIFFERENTFROMTRADITIONALGRAMMARTRADITIONALGRAMMARISPRESCRIPTIVEITISBASEDON“HIGH“RELIGIOUS,LITERARYWRITTENLANGUAGEITSETSGRAMMATICALRULESANDIMPOSESTHERULESONLANGUAGEUSERSBUTMODERNLINGUISTICSISDESCRIPTIVEITCOLLECTSAUTHENTIC,ANDMAINLYSPOKENLANGUAGEDATAANDTHENITSTUDIESANDDESCRIBESTHEDATAINANOBJECTIVEANDSCIENTIFICWAY64HOWDOYOUUNDERSTANDTHEDISTINCTIONBETWEENASYNCHRONICSTUDYANDADIACHRONICSTUDYTHEDESCRIPTIONOFALANGUAGEATSOMEPOINTINTIMEISASYNCHRONICSTUDYTHEDESCRIPTIONOFALANGUAGEASITCHANGESTHROUGHTIMEISADIACHRONICSTUDYASYNCHRONICSTUDYOFLANGUAGEDESCRIBESALANGUAGEASITISATSOMEPARTICULARPOINTINTIME,WHILEADIACHRONICSTUDYOFLANGUAGEISTHESTUDYOFTHEHISTORICALDEVELOPMENTOFLANGUAGEOVERAPERIODOFTIME65WHYDOESMODERNLINGUISTICSREGARDTHESPOKENFORMOFLANGUAGEASPRIMARY,NOTTHEWRITTENFIRST,THESPOKENFORMISPRIORTOTHEWRITTENFORMANDMOSTWRITINGSYSTEMSAREDERIVEDFROMTHESPOKENFORMOFLANGUAGESECOND,THESPOKENFORMPLAYSAGREATERROLETHANWRITINGINTERMSOFTHEAMOUNTOFINFORMATIONCONVEYEDANDITSERVESAWIDERRANGEOFPURPOSESFINALLY,THESPOKENFORMISTHEMEDIUMTHROUGHWHICHWEACQUIREOURMOTHERTONGUE66WHATARETHEMAJORDISTINCTIONSBETWEENLANGUEANDPAROLETHEDISTINCTIONBETWEENLANGUE,ANDPAROLEWASMADEBYTHEFAMOUSLINGUISTFERDINANDDESAUSSUREEARLYTHISCENTURYLANGUEREFERSTOTHEABSTRACTLINGUISTICSYSTEMSHAREDBYALLTHEMEMBERSOFASPEECHCOMMUNITY,ANDPAROLEREFERSTOTHEREALIZATIONOFLANGUEINACTUALUSELANGUEISTHESETOFCONVENTIONSANDRULESWHICHLANGUAGEUSERSALLHAVETOFOLLOWWHILEPAROLEISTHECONCRETEUSEOFTHECONVENTIONSANDTHEAPPLICATIONOFTHERULESLANGUEISABSTRACTITISNOTTHELANGUAGEPEOPLEACTUALLYUSE,BUTPAROLEISCONCRETEITREFERSTOTHENATURALLYOCCURRINGLANGUAGEEVENTSLANGUEISRELATIVELYSTABLEITDOESNOTCHANGEFREQUENTLYWHILEPAROLEVARIESFROMPERSONTOPERSON,ANDFROMSITUATIONTOSITUATION67HOWDOYOUUNDERSTANDCOMPETENCEANDPERFORMANCEAMERICANLINGUISTNCHOMSKYINTHELATE1950SPROPOSEDTHEDISTINCTIONBETWEENCOMPETENCEANDPERFORMANCECHOMSKYDEFINESCOMPETENCEASTHEIDEALUSERSKNOWLEDGEOFTHERULESOFHISLANGUAGETHISINTERNALIZEDSETOFRULESENABLESTHELANGUAGEUSERTOPRODUCEANDUNDERSTANDANINFINITELYLARGENUMBEROFSENTENCESANDRECOGNIZESENTENCESTHATAREUNGRAMMATICALANDAMBIGUOUSACCORDINGTOCHOMSKY,PERFORMANCEISTHEACTUALREALIZATIONOFTHISKNOWLEDGEINLINGUISTICCOMMUNICATIONALTHOUGHTHESPEAKERSKNOWLEDGEOFHISMOTHERTONGUEISPERFECT,HISPERFORMANCESMAYHAVEMISTAKESBECAUSEOFSOCIALANDPSYCHOLOGICALFACTORSSUCHASSTRESS,EMBARRASSMENT,ETCCHOMSKYBELIEVESTHATWHATLINGUISTSSHOULDSTUDYISTHECOMPETENCE,WHICHISSYSTEMATIC,NOTTHEPERFORMANCE,WHICHISTOOHAPHAZARD68SAUSSURESDISTINCTIONBETWEENLANGUEANDPAROLESEEMSSIMILARTOCHOMSKYSDISTINCTIONBETWEENCOMPETENCEANDPERFORMANCEWHATDOYOUTHINKARETHEIRMAJORDIFFERENCESALTHOUGHSAUSSURESDISTINCTIONANDCHOMSKYSAREVERYSIMILAR,THEYDIFFERATLEASTINTHATSAUSSURETOOKASOCIOLOGICALVIEWOFLANGUAGEANDHISNOTIONOFLANGUEISAMATEROFSOCIALCONVENTIONS,ANDCHOMSKYLOOKSATLANGUAGEFROMAPSYCHOLOGICALPOINTOFVIESANDTOHIM,COMPETENCEISAPROPERTYOFTHEMINDOFEACHINDIVIDUAL69DOYOUTHINKHUMANLANGUAGEISENTIRELYARBITRARYWHYLANGUAGEISARBITRARYINNATURE,ITISNOTENTIRELYARBITRARY,BECAUSETHEREAREALIMITEDNUMBEROFWORDSWHOSECONNECTIONSBETWEENFORMSANDMEANINGSCANBELOGICALLYEXPLAINEDTOACERTAINEXTENT,FOREXAMPLE,THEONOMATOPOEIA,WORDSWHICHARECOINEDONTHEBASISOFIMITATIONOFSOUNDSBYSOUNDSSUCHASBANG,CRASH,ETCTAKECOMPOUNDSFORANOTHEREXAMPLETHETWOELEMENTS“PHOTO”AND“COPY”IN“PHOTOCOPY”ARENONMOTIVATED,BUTTHECOMPOUNDISNOTARBITRARYCHAPTER2PHONOLOGYIDECIDEWHETHEREACHOFTHEFOLLOWINGSTATEMENTSISTRUEORFALSE1VOICINGISAPHONOLOGICALFEATURETHATDISTINGUISHESMEANINGINBOTHCHINESEANDENGLISH2IFTWOPHONETICALLYSIMILARSOUNDSOCCURINTHESAMEENVIRONMENTSANDTHEYDISTINGUISHMEANING,THEYARESAIDTOBEINCOMPLEMENTARYDISTRIBUTION3APHONEISAPHONETICUNITTHATDISTINGUISHESMEANING4ENGLISHISATONELANGUAGEWHILECHINESEISNOT5INLINGUISTICEVOLUTION,SPEECHISPRIORTOWRITING6INEVERYDAYCOMMUNICATION,SPEECHPLAYSAGREATERROLETHANWRITINGINTERMSOFTHEAMOUNTOFINFORMATIONCONVEYED7ARTICULATORYPHONETICSTRIESTODESCRIBETHEPHYSICALPROPERTIESOFTHESTREAMOFSOUNDSWHICHASPEAKERISSUESWITHTHEHELPOFAMACHINECALLEDSPECTROGRAPH8THEARTICULATORYAPPARATUSOFAHUMANBEINGARECONTAINEDINTHREEIMPORTANTAREASTHETHROAT,THEMOUTHANDTHECHEST9VIBRATIONOFTHEVOCALCORDSRESULTSINAQUALITYOFSPEECHSOUNDSCALLEDVOICING10ENGLISHCONSONANTSCANBECLASSIFIEDINTERMSOFPLACEOFARTICULATIONANDTHEPARTOFTHETONGUETHATISRAISEDTHEHIGHEST11ACCORDINGTOTHEMANNEROFARTICULATION,SOMEOFTHETYPESINTOWHICHTHECONSONANTSCANBECLASSIFIEDARESTOPS,FRICATIVES,BILABIALANDALVEOLAR12VOWELSOUNDSCANBEDIFFERENTIATEDBYANUMBEROFFACTORSTHEPOSITIONOFTONGUEINTHEMOUTH,THEOPENNESSOFTHEMOUTH,THESHAPEOFTHELIPS,ANDTHELENGTHOFTHEVOWELS13ACCORDINGTOTHESHAPEOFTHELIPS,VOWELSCANBECLASSIFIEDINTOCLOSEVOWELS,SEMICLOSEVOWELS,SEMIOPENVOWELSANDOPENVOWELS14ANYSOUNDPRODUCEDBYAHUMANBEINGISAPHONEME15PHONESARETHESOUNDSTHATCANDISTINGUISHMEANING16PHONOLOGYISCONCERNEDWITHHOWTHESOUNDSCANBECLASSIFIEDINTODIFFERENTCATEGORIES17ABASICWAYTODETERMINETHEPHONEMESOFALANGUAGEISTOSEEIFSUBSTITUTINGONESOUNDFORANOTHERRESULTSINACHANGEOFMEANING18WHENTWODIFFERENTFORMSAREIDENTICALINEVERYWAYEXCEPTFORONESOUNDSEGMENTWHICHOCCURSINTHESAMEPLACEINTHESTRINGS,THETWOWORDSARESAIDTOFORMAPHONEMICCONTRAST19THERULESGOVERNINGTHEPHONOLOGICALPATTERNINGARELANGUAGESPECIFIC20DISTINCTIVEFEATURESOFSOUNDSEGMENTSCANBEFOUNDRUNNINGOVERASEQUENCEOFTWOORMOREPHONEMICSEGMENTSIIFILLINEACHOFTHEFOLLOWINGBLANKSWITHONEWORDWHICHBEGINSWITHTHELETTERGIVEN21A_REFERSTOASTRONGPUFFOFAIRSTREAMINTHEPRODUCTIONOFSPEECHSOUNDS22A_PHONETICSDESCRIBESTHEWAYOURSPEECHORGANSWORKTOPRODUCETHESPEECHSOUNDSANDHOWTHEYDIFFER23THEFOURSOUNDS/P/,/B/,/M/AND/W/HAVEONEFEATUREINCOMMON,IE,THEYAREALLB_SOUNDS24OFALLTHESPEECHORGANS,THET_ISTHEMOSTFLEXIBLE,ANDISRESPONSIBLEFORVARIETIESOFARTICULATIONTHANANYOTHER25ENGLISHCONSONANTSCANBECLASSIFIEDINTERMSOFMANNEROFARTICULATIONORINTERMSOFP_OFARTICULATION26WHENTHEOBSTRUCTIONCREATEDBYTHESPEECHORGANSISTOTALORCOMPLETE,THESPEECHSOUNDPRODUCEDWITHTHEOBSTRUCTIONAUDIBLYRELEASEDANDTHEAIRPASSINGOUTAGAINISCALLEDAS_27S_FEATURESARETHEPHONEMICFEATURESTHATOCCURABOVETHELEVELOFTHESEGMENTSTHEYINCLUDESTRESS,TONE,INTONATION,ETC28THERULESTHATGOVERNTHECOMBINATIONOFSOUNDSINAPARTICULARLANGUAGEARECALLEDS_RULES29THETRANSCRIPTIONOFSPEECHSOUNDSWITHLETTERSYMBOLSONLYISCALLEDBROADTRANSCRIPTIONWHILETHETRANSCRIPTIONWITHLETTERSYMBOLSTOGETHERWITHTHEDIACRITICSISCALLEDN_TRANSCRIPTION30WHENPITCH,STRESSANDSOUNDLENGTHARETIEDTOTHESENTENCERATHERTHANTHEWORDINISOLATION,THEYARECOLLECTIVELYKNOWNASI_31P_ISADISCIPLINEWHICHSTUDIESTHESYSTEMOFSOUNDSOFAPARTICULARLANGUAGEANDHOWSOUNDSARECOMBINEDINTOMEANINGFULUNITSTOEFFECTLING