英語語言學(xué)知識(shí)整理

1、Chapter 1 Introduction語言學(xué)的定義：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.問題：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language?It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguisti

2、c data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.to check the hypotheses thus formed rep

3、eatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通語言學(xué))問題: What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?phonetics（語音學(xué)）the study of soundsphonology（音位學(xué)）study how sounds are put together

4、and used to convey meaningmorphology（形態(tài)學(xué)）study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.syntax（句法學(xué)）the study of rules of forming sentencessemantics（語義學(xué)）the study of meaningpragmatics（語用學(xué)） the context of language useSociolinguistics（社會(huì)語言學(xué)）：The studies of all these

5、 social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics（語言心理學(xué)）：Relate the study of language to psychologyApplied linguistics（應(yīng)用語言學(xué)）：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially th

6、e teaching of foreign and second languages. Some important distinctions in linguistics:prescriptive（規(guī)定性）/descriptive（描寫性）synchronic（共時(shí)）/diachronic（歷時(shí)）speech（口語）/writing（書面語）langue（語言）/parole（言語）（the Swiss linguist F. de SaussureCourse in General Linguistics）competence（語言能力）/performance（語言應(yīng)用）（the Ame

7、rican linguist N. Chomsky）traditional grammar （傳統(tǒng)語法）/modern linguistics（現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)）問題：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.

8、modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.問題：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why? In modern linguistics, a synchronic (不考慮歷史演進(jìn)的, 限于一時(shí)的) approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic (探求現(xiàn)象變化的, 歷時(shí)的) one. Because it is believed that unless the

9、various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most

10、linguistic studies are of this type.問題：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the ne

11、ed arises. Even in todays world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written lan

12、guage is only the “revised” record of speech. And linguists data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.語言的定義：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design features of language（7個(gè)識(shí)別特征）arbitrariness

13、任意性 （at the syntactic level）productivity 能產(chǎn)性，創(chuàng)造性 Secondary units（底層結(jié)構(gòu) sounds）duality 雙層性 Primary units （上層結(jié)構(gòu) units of meaning）displacement 不受時(shí)空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）cultural transmission 文化傳遞性interchangeability 互換性convention 約定性Functions of language：三大主要功能：The descriptive functio

14、nThe expressive functionThe social functionRoman Jacobson（6種首要因素，結(jié)構(gòu)主義語言學(xué)家）speaker addresseremotive 感情功能addresseeconative 意動(dòng)功能contextreferential所指功能messagepoetic 詩學(xué)功能contactphatic communion交感功能codemetalinguistic 元語言功能Other functions:phatic function 問候功能informative f. 信息功能interrogative f. 詢問功能expressi

15、ve f. 表達(dá)功能evocative f. 感染功能directive f. 指令功能performative f. 行使（權(quán)力）功能M.A.K. Hallidayideationalinterpersonal（indicate/establish/maintain/social relationships）textual問題：How is Saussures distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomskys distinction between competence and performance?The distinct

16、ion between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to people, and fro

17、m situation to situation.The distinction between competence and performance proposed by the American linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal users knowledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Imperfect performanc

18、e is caused by social and psychological factors.Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do is to abstra

19、ct langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speakers competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studie

20、d. 問題：What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?arbitrariness 任意性 （at the syntactic level）productivity 能產(chǎn)性，創(chuàng)造性 Secondary units（底層結(jié)構(gòu) sounds）duality 雙層性 Primary units （上層結(jié)構(gòu) units of mean

21、ing）displacement 不受時(shí)空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）cultural transmission 文化傳遞性interchangeability 互換性convention 約定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: （語音學(xué)）the study of the phonic medium of languagelook at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related points of view. study the sounds from the speak

22、ers point of viewarticulatory phonetics（發(fā)音語音學(xué)） look at the sounds from the hearers point of viewauditory phonetics（聽覺語音學(xué)） study the way sounds travel by looking at the sound wavesacoustic phonetics（聲學(xué)語音學(xué)）study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived.Organs of speech:three important areas

23、The pharyngeal cavitythe throat the oral cavitythe mouth the nasal cavitythe nose The pharyngeal cavitywindpipe/glottis/larynx/vocal cords the oral cavitytongue/uvula/soft palate(velum)/hard palate/teeth ridge(alveolus) /teeth/lipsInternational Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）diacritics 附加符號(hào)broad transcripti

24、on（寬式標(biāo)音）the transcription with letter-symbols onlynarrow transcription（嚴(yán)式標(biāo)音）the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacriticsClassification of English speech soundstwo broad categories of speech sounds in English: Vowels/consonantstwo ways to classify the English consonants: In term

25、s of manner of articulationIn terms of place of articulationIn terms of manner of articulation: Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glidesIn terms of place of articulation: Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottalbilabialLabio-dentaldentalalveolarpalatalvelarglottalstopsVLpt

26、kVDbdgfricativesVLfshVDvzaffricatesVL(t)tVD(d)dnasalsVDmnliquidsVDl/rglidesVDwjClassification of English vowelscriteria :（monophthongs）單元音 The position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/back The openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-close vowels/semi-open vowels/open vowels The shape of t

27、he lips: unrounded/rounded The length of the vowels: tense/laxfrontcentralbackclose i:u: i uSemi-close e:Semi-open:open aa:diphthongs 雙元音/ ei / / ai / au / u / i / i / u /Phonology 音韻學(xué)，語音體系Difference of phonology and phonetics: Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human langu

28、ages. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phone（音素）: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme（音位）: It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abst

29、ract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.Allophone（音位變體）: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Phonemic contrast（音位對(duì)立

30、）Complementary distribution（音位變體的互補(bǔ)分布）Minimal pairs（最小對(duì)立體）：含音位的單詞的全部音標(biāo)Minimal set（最小對(duì)立集）：is used to find the important sounds in language.Phonological Analysis（音位分析）Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not.Phonetically similar sounds: 描述音

31、位關(guān)系Free variants: 音位的自由變體The difference of pronouncing a sound caused by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule.Some rules in phonology sequential rules: 序列規(guī)則If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.If th

32、ree consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:The first phoneme must be / s /The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l / r / w /assimilation rule:同化規(guī)則deletion rule：省略規(guī)則Suprasegmental features 超

33、音段特征超音段（比音位更大的語言單位） stress （單詞，句子層面）：the location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.Syllable音節(jié)：A syllable nucleus (often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (often consonants)單音節(jié)詞多音節(jié)詞英語單詞都有重讀音位學(xué)中，單詞由音節(jié)構(gòu)成，音節(jié)由音位構(gòu)成。句子里讀重音的詞：Nouns/main verbs/adjectives/adverbs/numerals/demonstrativ

34、e pronouns tone （詞匯層面）English is not a tone languageChinese is a typical tone language: Level/the second rise/the third fall-rise/the fourth fallintonation （句子層面）English has four basic types of intonation:The falling tone/the rising tone/the fall-rise tone/the rise-fall tone問題：What are the two major

35、 media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?Speech and writing Speech Because from the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in todays w

36、orld there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”

37、 record of speech. And linguists data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.問題：What is voicing and how is it caused?Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”, which is a feature of all vowels a

38、nd some consonants in English.Chapter 3 Morphology 詞法形態(tài)學(xué)1 定義和知識(shí)點(diǎn)：the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structurethe branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.it is essentially synchronic, primarily con

39、cerned with the forms of words through the use of morpheme construct.it overlaps with the other sub-branches as a word is a sound unit that has meaning and syntactic function.four facets: Sounds (phonology) Constructions (syntax) Meanings (semantics) Forms of words2 詞性分類open class words: 名、動(dòng)、形、副 are

40、 the content words of a language closed class words: 連、介、冠、代 are small and stable since few new words are added3 詞素有關(guān) Morpheme: 詞素構(gòu)成單詞的最小意義單位，包括聲音和意義，abstract units(任意性) Morph: 形素 the sound of a morpheme 聲音 Allomorphs: 語素變體 The variant forms of a morpheme4 分類morphemes Free morpheme(自由詞素): A morpheme

41、 which can be a word by itself bound morpheme(粘著詞素)：A morpheme that must be attached to another one lexical morphemes/ derivational morphemes(派生詞素,包括前后綴): They are used to derive new words, also known as derivational morphemes inflectional morphemes(屈折詞素)：詞類不發(fā)生變化5 單詞定義：WordA word is a unit of expres

42、sion which is intuitively recognized by native speakers in both spoken and written language.A word is a basic and minimal units of a language to make sentences, which are combinations of words according to syntactic rules. A word is a lexeme(詞位). A lexeme is a word in an abstract sense.A word can be

43、 defined as a grammatical unit.6 單詞結(jié)構(gòu)：Structure Root: the root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning. Roots belong to lexical category.Stem: it is the form of the word to which both inflectional and derivational morphemes can be added.Base: 詞基Affixes: they a

44、re forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. All of them are bound morphemes and dont belong to a lexical category.7 單詞合成：Word formationmorphological rulesproductive morphological rulesderivationcompounds 幾點(diǎn)注意：When the two words are in the same grammatical cate

45、gory, the compound will be like this: n. + n. / adj. + adj.When the two words fall into different categories: n. + adj. / v. + n. （不總是這樣）The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.8 單詞合成過程：compoundingaffixation or derivation Blends 混合詞 Abbreviation 縮略語shortening acr

46、onyms 按音節(jié)拼讀首字母的單詞 Initials 按字母拼讀的單詞 Clippings 縮寫詞backformation 逆構(gòu)詞法9 要點(diǎn)Grammatical morphemes are grammatical in nature, functioning as grammatical markers or show syntactic relations.They consist of both inflectional morphemes and some free ones like in, and, do, they, while, where, but and that, wh

47、ich are traditionally known as functional words.Chapter 4 Syntax 句法1 定義It is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2 四大派別traditional syntax 傳統(tǒng)學(xué)派structural syntax 結(jié)構(gòu)主義學(xué)派（索緒爾）transformational syntax 生成學(xué)派（喬姆斯基）（本書重點(diǎn)學(xué)習(xí)）functional syntax 功能學(xué)派（哈里德）3 范疇Catego

48、ries Noun (N) Verb (V) Major lexical categories Adjective (A) Preposition (P)Word-level categories Determiner (Det) 限定詞/成分 Degree words (Deg) 程度詞 Minor lexical categories Qualifier (Qual) 修飾語 Auxiliary (Aux) 助詞 Conjunction (Con) 連詞Syntactic categories 句法范疇的定義：The fact that words in all human languag

49、es can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes.注：The word-level categories are the most central categories to the syntactic study.Major lexical categories (主要詞匯范疇) play a very important role in sentence formation and they are often assumed to be the heads around which phrases a

50、re built.Minor lexical categories (次要詞匯范疇) Meaning 意義Three criteria to determine a words category inflection 屈折變化 Distribution 分布? It is misleading to assume that a words category can be told straightforward from its meaning:nouns do not concretely reveal their entities.some words tend to be verbs b

51、ut they can also be used as nouns.words with the same or similar meanings sometimes belong to different word categories. Phrases are syntactic units that are built around a certain word category.The phrase is built around the word category.The word category determines the category of phrase.4 要點(diǎn)生成學(xué)派

52、認(rèn)為句子由短語構(gòu)成。短語單詞詞素音節(jié) 短語層面任何短語都有2個(gè)層面 單詞層面5 the most commonly recognized and discussed phrasal categories:NP: noun phraseVP: verb phraseAP: adjective phrasePP: prepositional phrase6 the elements of phrases that are formed of more than one word:head/termed head 中心語/中心成分: The word around which a phrase is

53、 formedspecifiers 標(biāo)志語/標(biāo)志成分：The words on the left side of the heads complements 補(bǔ)語/補(bǔ)足語/補(bǔ)足成分：The words on the right side of the heads7 phrase structure rule 短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則定義：A special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that makes up a phrase.The phrase structure rule for NP, VP, AP, PPNP(Det) N (PP) VP(Qual) V (NP) AP(Deg) A (PP) PP(Deg) P (NP) XP rule公式一：XP (specifier) X (complement)X Theory （X 標(biāo)桿理論）X : The intermediate