On Metaphor in Advertising English正文

1、On Metaphor in Advertising EnglishIntroduction12. Metaphor Studies22.1 The Development of Metaphor32.2 The Definition of Metaphor43. English Advertisement53.1 Definition of advertising53.2 Features of Advertising Language74. Metaphor and other Rhetorical Techniques94.1 Cooperative Principle approach

2、 to Metaphor94.2 The Humanizing Metaphor114.3 Hyperbole Metaphor124.4 The Synaesthetic Metaphor144.5 Summary165. Relevance Principles in English Advertising175.1 Principle of Economy175.2 Principle of Efficiency195.3 Principle of Euphemism205.4 Principle of Aesthetic216. Metaphor understanding246.1

3、Metaphor understanding involves socio-cultural factors246.2 Individual difference in metaphor understanding257. Conclusion27Reference.28IntroductionIn the modern world, advertising can be seen everywhere. As a main method of promoting products or services, advertisement plays a more and more importa

4、nt role in commercial world. It highlights the effect of the products and services on the consumers.Metaphor, a traditional topic for poetry and literary studies, has recently attracted the increasing attention of philosophers, linguists,psychologists, and is generally regarded as a testing ground f

5、or theories of language comprehension. Metaphor has exploded as a topic of interest in the humanities and social sciences over the past twenty-five years (see Cameron, 1999:21) China has also attached great importance to metaphor, which is evidenced the proliferation of publications of papers concer

6、ning metaphor studies in Chinas major journals of foreign language research.Advertising and metaphor, both are hot issues in the world. Metaphor as an important rhetoric is widely applied to advertisement. Even in the textbooks and tests, there is nothing new in it. There is a common viewpoint exist

7、s among English readers in China, it is easy to grasp English by remember sufficient vocabulary. Only a few readers can pay enough attention to rhetoric, especially metaphor. Therefore, it is possible miss the point when readers have encountered some simply metaphor sentences. In order to offering a

8、 good opportunity for English readers have a better understanding about metaphor, the following introduce different ways of classifying metaphor to see how metaphor is understood from different perspectives.2. Metaphor StudiesIt is believed that metaphor is one of the complicated topics in the domai

9、n of language and though. Studying and applying metaphor are enormous,there are actually too many different theories of metaphor for any one who wishes to approach metaphor.2.1 The Development of MetaphorIn ancient Greece, Aristotle defines metaphor as“the application of an alien name by transferenc

10、e either from genus to species, or from species to genus, or from species to species, or by analogy, that is proportion” (see Butcher, 1948:28.). This account of metaphor is known as the comparison theory of metaphor.In the 1980s, George Lakoff, a linguist, and Mark Johnson, a philosopher, suggest t

11、hat metaphors not only make our thoughts more vivid and interesting but that they actually structure our perceptions and understanding. (1999:54) This is what we called conceptual metaphor theory.Contemporary metaphor researchers differ greatly in their perspectives of metaphor studies. Some of them

12、 are interested in the theoretical explorations of metaphor, focusing on such issues as metaphor identification, categorization of metaphor types, and interpretation of metaphor in discourse. Other researchers are inclined to investigate the processes of metaphor production and structuring of concep

13、tual domains through metaphor.These scholars contribute to metaphor studies from differentperspectives, at different levels, we can study in a well-developed framework or model.2.2 The Definition of Metaphor“Metaphor” originated from the Greek “metaphorn”, means “a transfer of a meaning”. According

14、to Websters New World Dictionary, “it is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison, in which a word or phrase ordinarily and primarily used of one thing is applied to another”. Britannica Book of English Usage defined it “perhaps the most important figure of speech, points out resemblance

15、but with no acknowledge word”(see 呂煦, 2004:36 ).Metaphor is language that directly compares seemingly unrelated subjects. In the simplest case, this takes the form: The first subject is a second subject More generally, a metaphor is a rhetorical trope that describes a first subject as being or equal

16、 to a second subject in some way. Thus, the first subject can be economically described because implicit and explicit attributes from the second subject are used to enhance the description of the first. This device is known for usage in literature, especially in poetry, where with few words, emotion

17、s and associations from one context are associated with objects and entities in a different context. (Net, 1)But metaphor is much than simple A is like B or B is a statement.Lakoff and Johnson (1980) hold a viewpoint that synecdoche, irony and personification are general category that covers a very

18、wide range of metaphors. “Metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action”. (1980:4) Aristotle points out that a metaphor is “l(fā)ucid, pleasing, and strange,and has all these qualities to a high degree” (see Cameron, 1999:3)Metaphor is frequently used in the worl

19、d. However, a large part of metaphor studies has chiefly been focused on theory-introduction and comments, few studies are focused on the advertising field, both theoretically and experimentally. There are actually some relationship between metaphor and advertising. The aim of this thesis is to find

20、 how metaphor applied to advertising English.3. English AdvertisementWith the economic globalization as well as China entering WTO, more and more foreign products are imported to China, English advertisement has become more and more popular.3.1 Definition of advertisingAdvertising is a type of publi

21、city to draw public attention to something, for its Latin origin “advertere”means “to turn toward.”or drawing attention to something”(Hermeren L, 1999:2)The following are some of the often-cited definitions of advertising. The famous American Marketing Association defines advertising as follow: Adve

22、rtising is the nonpersonal communication of usually paid for and usually paid for and usually persuasive in nature about products, services or ideas by identified sponsors through the various media. (1998)Advertising is often regarded as a process of relatively indirect persuasion, based on informat

23、ion about products or services benefits, which is designed to create favorable mental impression that turns the mind toward purchase. (Rossiter and Percy ,1997)In the above definition, “public”, “nonpersonal communication”, and “indirect persuasion” indicate that the target of advertisement is publi

24、c not personal, the way of promoting is indirect not direct.The advertisement is to “public” not for individual person, the information convey by advertisement must be accept by the public. Advertising is not aimed at any individual, or by any individual. Its a nonpersonal transmission of informatio

25、n aiming at the public or a certain group of people. The information, methods, media, and other components of advertising should abide by the advertising laws, policies and rules, and should be under the supervision of the public. (Net.2)The aims of advertisement are to inform, persuade, and remind

26、customers to purchase. Generally speaking, people are not familiar withnew products or new services at first. Through advertisement, people could know the information about products and services benefits, and then accept the promoting products and services.3.2 Features of Advertising LanguageAccordi

27、ng to the language system, language consists of spoken language and written language.A written language is the representation of a language by means of a writing system. The written language can be significantly more precise. Written words can be chosen with greater deliberation and thought, and a w

28、ritten argument can be extraordinarily sophisticated, intricate, and lengthy. These attributes of writing are possible because the pace of involvement is controlled by both the writer and the reader. The writer can write and rewrite at great length, a span of time which in some cases can be measured

29、 in years. Similarly, the reader can read quickly or slowly or even stop to think about what he or she has just read. The written word appeals a deliberative style.A spoken language is a human natural languagein which the words are uttered through the mouth. From the point of view of linguistic evol

30、ution, spoken is prior to written language. Spoken language can also be precise and indeed they ought to be. But precision in oral communication comes only with a great deal of preparation and compression. Once spoken, wordscannot be retracted, although one can apologize for a mistake and improvise

31、a clarification or qualification. On the other hand, spoken language can be significantly more effective in expressing meaning to an audience, due to the extensive repertoire of signals available to the speaker: gestures, intonation, inflection, volume, pitch, pauses, movement, visual cues such as a

32、ppearance, and a whole host of other ways to communicate meaning. (Net. 3)The wide use of advertising has created a special style of Englishadvertising English. Its unique features, simple language and immense attraction make it differ from other kind of language. In the development of advertising E

33、nglish, this kind of language has formed its own features in several aspects, which are related to spoken language and written language. (Net. 2)(1). Simple and informalThe function of advertising is to provide information, attract consumer, exploit market, and promise the quality. Therefore, advert

34、isement must pay attention to its impelling language, and the first step is to use popular and spoken language to make it easy to understand and memorize.(2). Sophisticate and deliberateBecause of the nonpersonal features of advertising, the dissemination and operation of it should be restricted by

35、the law of a country, the moralstandards. Advertising language must deliberate and sophisticate, to avoid trivial faults in it. If occur, enterprise have no choice but to apologize for a mistake and suffer huge loss.4. Metaphor and other Rhetorical TechniquesThere are many pragmatic theories of meta

36、phor, the three most influential ones are: Grices Cooperative Principle and Searles speech act theory and Sperber and Wilsons Relevance Theory. One main task of this chapter is to exemplify how the metaphor and other rhetoric techniques blend base on the Cooperative Principle introduced by American

37、philosopher H. Paul Grice. Metaphor is much more than a rhetoric technique, generalized metaphor includes: the humanizing metaphors, hyperbole metaphors and syanaesthetic metaphors etc. Some examples are quoted to show that metaphor and other rhetoric can be blend used. The following analysis of the

38、 cross-domain relationships, take advertising as example to demonstrate how three different kind of metaphor advertising work.4.1 Cooperative Principle approach to MetaphorCooperation has itself been elevated to the status of an independent principle in the works of the late British/American philoso

39、pher H. PaulGrice (1975, 1989), whose Cooperative Principle (abbreviated: CP) consists of four pragmatic sub-principles, or maxims, to wit:The maxim of quantity:1. Make your contribution as informative as required;2. Do not make your contribution more informative than required.The maxim of quality:1

40、. Do not say what you believe to be false;2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.The maxim of relation:1. Make your contribution relevant.2. The maxim of manner:Be perspicuous, and specifically:1. Avoid obscurity2. Avoid ambiguity3. Be brief4. Be orderly. (Net. 5)The Cooperative Pri

41、nciple describes how people interact with one another, enable effective communication. Most people are observing Cooperative Principle, but someone will violate it. Grice list follow situations:1. The speaker not observes the CP, and listener can not detect it.2. The speaker claims that unwilling to

42、 observe CP.3. The speaker would observe and violate certain CP at the same time under embarrassing situation.4. The speaker not observes CP intentionally, and listeners (generally) assume that speaker is not observing it.Advertising is a special conversation relate to Cooperative Principle.The foll

43、owing will discuss metaphor base on Cooperative Principle.4.2 The Humanizing MetaphorPersonification, American English Rhetoric (R.G. Bander, 1978: 176) defined as follow: “attributes human qualities and abilities to inanimate objects, animals, abstractions, and events.” Websters New World Dictionar

44、y explains: “a figure of speech in which a thing, quality, or idea is represented as a person ”. The use of personification in advertising will endow the product with human emotion, will make advertising amicable to consumers. (see 鑫華, 2000:46)Metaphor and personification are usually identifying use

45、. However, both seem to seem to come together in advertisement. For example,“How do you keep your head above water when the market takes a dive?Learn to swim. With a strong Swiss bank. In these times of volatile equities markets, political uncertainty and shrinking dollars, we can help you stay aflo

46、at. With safe financial instruments invested in solid currencies.”(Bank and Insurance advertisements)Here “market takes a dive” is attribute human activity to market, it compare market risks to people take a dive. “How do you keep your head above water” and “l(fā)earn to swim” indicate that people must

47、learn how to avoid lose when encounter declining market. Metaphor and personification belong to different category, does not confirm to logical. “In the water” may refers to the place“sea” “pool” “river” the places for people swimming, but market is“the world of commercial activity where goods and s

48、ervices are bought and sold”. Both are “place”, have bear some analogy, but “market take a dive ” is an abstract conception, so “How do you keep your head above water when the market takes a dive” not observe Cooperative Principle. However, admen know the readers would not comprehend it literally, a

49、nd readers also know admen were not observe Cooperative Principle intentionally. In the market where would not mention to keep your head above. If reader can find theimply meaning “the economic forecast is gloomy or brigh”t that enablethem comprehend the genuine meaning of “l(fā)earn to swim”.4.3 Hyperb

50、ole MetaphorHyperbole, another rhetorical device used in advertisement, which is a technique of language expression. Hyperbole, come from Greek “hyperbol (hyper + bol)”, means “excess”. The Random House College Dictionary (Revised Edition): “an extravagant statement orfigure of speech not intended t

51、o be taken literally, as to wait an eternity”; The Cassell Dictionary of Literary and Language Term (Ruseet al ,1992:143): “a figure of speech that deliberately uses exaggeration in order to give emphasis” (2004:125)According to Cooperative Principle, “do not say what you believe to be false”, the p

52、roducers make deceptive advertisement, and dont allow exaggerate the quality of product. In order to evoke strong feelings and to create a strong impression, the admen exaggerate products on purpose. Sperber and Wilson (1986) contend that listeners know exactly what to do when a speaker violates a c

53、onvention: they search for a context that will render the violation intelligible, then the consumer will achieve an understandingoftheadvertisersstatement.Takefollowing advertisements as examples:“Take Toshiba, take the world”. (Ad. for electronic products)“Toshiba” and “world” can not be equal. The

54、 maxim of relation: Make your contribution relevant. Toshiba electronic products have not such magic power to make people control the world. Through exaggerate the effects of products, readers are also confident at this products. Readers would prefer to believe that Toshiba are high quality. Another

55、 example as follow:“God recommend it.” (Ad. for coffin)“God” is the one of brand name of coffin. God does not exist in thisworld. However, people liketo image someone has total power, ableto do anything, they called “God”. People in adoration of god, so when God recommend them drink this coffee, imp

56、ly that this coffin is highly complementally.Admen claim that they would not observe the Cooperative Principle. It highlights the distinguishing feature or quality, instead of exaggerate the truth deliberately. Admen stress the effects of products excessively, result in strengthen the power of langu

57、age rather than damaged the companys image among the consumer.4.4 The Synaesthetic MetaphorSynaesthesia, Greek origin “syn+aesthesia”, “syn” means “together”; “aesthesia” means “sensation”. The Random House College Dictionary “a sensation produced in one modality when a stimulus is applied to anothe

58、r modality, as when the hearing of a certain sound induced the visualization of a certain color”. (2004:247)Synaesthetic metaphors are indeed metaphors. Moreover, they can work just like most other metaphors. Marks concluded that:“Metaphoric expressions of the unity of the senses evolved in part from fundamental synesthetic relationships but owe their creative impulse to the minds ability to transcend these intrinsic correspondences and forge new multis