跨文化交際期末

1、定義題 1. What is “ intercultural munication” ？ P6 refer to muni catio n betwee n people whose cultural backgro unds are disti net eno ugh to alter their muni cati on event. There are three kinds of things you n eed to lear n if you want to be able to muni cate effectively with Westerners. First, you n

2、 eed to learn a foreig n Ian guage, usually English.Second, you should learn as much as possible about Western cultures. However, study ing En glish Ian guage and Wester n culture is not eno ugh. You should also learn something about what happens when people from different cultures try to muni cate

3、with each other in other words, in tercultural muni cati on. 2. What is a culture? P13 A culture is esse ntially a group of people who carry many of the same ideas in their heads. Culture: can bee n see n as shared kno wledge, what people n eed to know in order to act appropriately in a give n cultu

4、re. Culture:a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values, and norms, which affect the behavior of a relatively large group of people 3. What are stereotypes?P13 Stereotypes means very broad generalizations such as “ British people are polite, ”“ America ns are frien dly” , and so fo

5、rth. It is a derogatory word. It means that image, idea, character that has bee fixed or standardized in a conventional form without individualityand is therefore false and shallow. Stereotypes may have a basis in fact, but they are too broad and shallow, and they give us the mistaken idea that a pe

6、ople s culture can be summedup easily in a few short , simple statements. Stereotypes are also dangerous because they may trick us into believingthat knowing a few stereotypes is the same thing as un dersta nding ano ther culture. 4. What does “ in terpretati on means?P24 Avery importa ntaspect of i

7、n tercultural muni cati on is “ in terpretati on ” ,t he process of decidi ng what foreig ners words and actions mea n and why they do what they do. For example, whe n Xiao Li tries to un dersta nd why the taxi driver asked for so much money, she is “interpreting ” his behavior. 5. I ndividualist p3

8、2 Individualist culture is one in which people tend to view themselves as in dividuals and emphasize the n eeds of in dividuals. In gen eral, Wester n culture tends to be individualist.They view themselves as independent of collectives; are primarily motivated by their own prefere nces, n eeds, righ

9、ts, and the con tacts they have established with others; give priority to their personal goals over the goals of others; and emphasize rati onal an alyses of the adva ntages and disadva ntages to associat ing with others. 6. Collectivist P32 Collectivist culture is one in which people tend to view t

10、hemselves as members of groups (families, work un its, tribes, n atio ns), and usually con sider the n eeds of the group to be more important than the needs of individuals.Most Asian cultures, in cludi ng Chin as, tend to be collectivist. People see themselves as parts of one or more collectives; ar

11、e primarily motivated by the norms of, and duties imposed by, those collectives; are willing to give priority to the goals of these collectives over their own personal goals; and emphasize their connectedness to members of these cultures. 7. What is “ hierarchy ” ?P50 Hierarchy is differences in ran

12、k and power. Every society has hierarchyto some degree. In other words, some people have higher rank and more power tha n others, perhaps because they are older, stronger, wealthier, or have some kind of official positi on. 8. What is “ culture shock ” ?P58 “ Culture shock ” is often used to describ

13、e what happens whenever a person encounters a culture different from his or her own. The term culture shock describes what happe ns whe n a sojour ner from culture A goes to live in culture B, and n eeds to adapt to life there. The con sta nt effort and un certa inty of deali ng with a foreig n Ian

14、guage and culture can lead to a condition called“ culture shock ” . It is a feeling of being con fused and overwhelmed by life in ano ther culture. People who experie nee culture shock often feel fatigued, impatie nt and irritable. They may also beg in trying to avoid in teract ion with foreig ners,

15、 and even bee in creas in gly critical and hostile toward them. Foreig ners in Chi na sometimes experie nee culture shock and so do Chin ese who go to live in other coun tries. 9. Low con text P66 The way to muni cate tends to be relatively explicitand direct. In other words, people tend to put most

16、 of heir ideas and feeli ngs pla inly and ope nly. It s gen erally considered a good thing to“ get the point ” and “ say what you mean ”，and it is largely the speaker s responsibility to ensure that his/her message is stated in a way that is clear and easy to un dersta nd. 10. High con text P66 High

17、 con text is more in direct and subtle and liste ners are expected to take more responsibilityfor interpretingmessages correctly. People are expected to pay much atte nti on to the con text in which mun icatio n takes place and whe n people in terpret what others mean, they ofte n give more weight t

18、o the con text tha n to the actual words said. In fact, people in high con text cultures ofte n view direct, explicit muni cati on as un sophisticated or even rude. 11. What is “ projected cultural similarity” ? P74 Projected cultural similarity is a phe nomenon which is the tendency to assume that

19、people from other cultures basically think and feel more the same way we do. In other words, we sometimes assume that while foreigners may look different,dress differe ntly, and speak differe nt Ian guages, in side we are all more or less the same. 12. “Loose” cultures P83 “ Loose ” culturedo not de

20、ma nd a high degree of con formity. In loose cultures, people have a relatively wide range of views as to what is considered normal behavior. Of course, such cultures have some consen sus on what is and is not con sidered appropriate behavior, but the consen susis not very strong and there is ofte n

21、 much disagreeme nt. People in loose cultures also tend to be relatively tolera nt of behavior that does not conform to cultural no rms. 13. “Tight ” cultures P83 Tight cultures expect a relatively high degree of conformity. There is a clear consen sus as to what is and is not acceptable behavior, a

22、nd there is more pressure on people to conform to the norms of the culture. 14. What is“ethnocentrism ” ? P93 Ethnocentrism is the tendency to thinkof one s own culture as being at the center of the world in other words, to assume that one s own cultures way of thi nki ng and acti ng is more n atura

23、l, no rmal, and correct tha n the way people from other cultures think and act. 15. What are “ in-groups ” and “ out-groups ” ? P107 In-Groups:In-groups ” are the people we have the most in mon with and identify most closely with,such as our family, classmates, or co-workers.Wealso have largerin-gro

24、ups such as people who are from our own regi on, religious group, eth nic group, or n ati on. Out-groups:out groups are those groups of people who we do not identify with-people from other families, regi ons, eth nic groups, or n atio ns. Toward outsiders, we tend to be more critical, suspicious, an

25、d willi ng to pass harsh judgme nts. 16. Collectivist cultures Collectivist gen erally have a high sense of loyalty and obligati on to their in-groups,and will often go to greatlengths to help people they consider members of their in-groups. However, they feel less obligati on to outsiders. The main

26、 distinction people usually make is between“ us ” and them” . 17. Individualist western cultures P114 While in dividualist westerners also treat outsiders differe ntly from members of their out-groups, the differe nee is gen erallynot so great; for example, in dividualistsgen erally assist members o

27、f their in-groups as much as collectivists would, but they may offer more assista nee to outsiders tha n collectivists would. The main distinction people usually make is between“ me and others ” . 18. What are “war stories ” ? P125 The term war stories ” originally referred to the kinds of stories s

28、oldiers would tell after experie nces in battle. Now war stories ” refers more gen erally to any stories people tell after strange or stressfulexperiences,includingstories about unu sual encoun ters with foreig ners. War stories n aturally tend to be biased aga inst outsiders, so they tend to rei nf

29、orce n egative views toward foreig ners. What s more, n egative views based on an experie nee with one foreig ner are ofte n used as evide nee to draw con clusi ons about foreig ners in gen eral. 19. What is givi ng the ben efit of the doubt? P142 When you encounter a foreigner whose behavior seems

30、unusual or hard to understand, you should keep an open mind and try to delay or suspend interpretation. Giving the ben efit of the doubt is less likely to cause us to think or act i n ways that will unn ecessarily damage our relatio nships with foreig ners. 簡答題（定義+評論） 1. What are the problems in in

31、tercultural muni cati on?/Why is it so hard to muni cate with foreig ners? P9 refer to muni cati on betwee n people whose cultural backgro unds are dist incteno ugh to alter their munication event. Learn about what happens when people from different culturestryto muni cate with each other in other w

32、ords, in tercultural muni catio n. Part of the problem is that there are many differe nt Ian guages, so it is very hard to muni cate with foreig ners. Also, cultures are differe ntand it s difficult for foreig ners to un dersta nd why stude nts acted as they did. Ano ther part of the problem is the

33、way foreignershandle the interculturalmunication.WhenChinese do or say things that seem strange to them, foreigners tend to jump to conclusions and they are more likely to jump to n egative con clusi ons in stead of con sideri ng other possible expla natio ns for the Chin ese stude nts behavior. 2.

34、What are the characteristics of Chinese culture? P17 定義“ culture ” 1. collectivismemphasis on the doctri ne of the mea n 2. large power dista nce-hierarchy 3. In ter-group (in-group) harm ony and avoida nee of overt (covert) con flict in in terpers onal relati ons 4. hypocritical 5. hypocrisy 6. bel

35、ief in the“ n atura In ess, n ecessity, and in evitability of hierarchy.” 7. in equality based on achieveme nt, especially academic, moral, and finan cial achieveme nt 8. belief that “the judgment of wise people ” is a better way to regulate life than rigid, artificial laws 9. people exist“ in and t

36、hrough relati on ship with others.” 10. academic emphasis on memory, atte nti on to detail, and len gthy homework 3. What are the virtues of Chinese culture? P31 定義“ culture ” 1. formality 2. hierarchy 3. in dustrious ness/dilige nt/assiduous 4. being filial 5. hard work 6. modesty (modest)-humility

37、 (humble) 7. thrifty economical-frugal frugality 4. ment on: “Never a borrower or lender be ” P32 定義 “ individualist” Individualist culture is one in which people tend to view themselves as in dividuals and emphasize the n eeds of in dividuals. In gen eral, Wester n culture tends to be individualist

38、.They view themselves as independent of collectives; are primarily motivated by their own prefere nces, n eeds, rights, and the con tacts they have established with others; give priority to their personal goals over the goals of others; and emphasize rati onal an alyses of the adva ntages and disadv

39、a ntages to associat ing with others. “ Never a borrower or a lender be ” , this sentence means that it is best to not lend money to other people and to not borrow from other people. Whenwe lend something we risk los ing both the thing we lend and the frien dship with that other pers on. To begi n w

40、ith, it is because wester ners are in In dividualistCultures. In dividualists tend to view themselves as in dividuals and to emphasize the n eeds of in dividuals. In dividualists feel less obligati on to others, whether they are in-groups or out-groups. Secon dly, because of their characteristics,th

41、eir in dividualism, western people tend to be very in depe ndent and self-relia nt. They will always solve their problems by themselves. So they don t want others to rely on them, either. 5. What are some differences betweenan individualist cultureand a collectivist o ne? P35 定義：in dividualist and c

42、ollectivist There are two basic differe nee betwee n cultures. One illustration of the differeneebetween collectivist and individualist cultures can be found in the way schools are orga ni zed.Chin ese stude ntsgen erally function as a group. They are organized into class groups and have the same co

43、urses with students in the same class. In contrast, North American students are expected to fun cti on as in dividuals. They gen erally choose courses accord ing to their own in terests and have differe nt classmates in differe nt courses. Parties serve as another illustration.Chinese parties often

44、have a group focus. Western parties are different, for example, the cocktail party in which people chat together in pairs or small groups and may cha nge con versati on part ners duri ng the party. 6. What are some ways in which Western societies differ in how they view the issue of equality? P51 定義

45、：equality禾口 hierarchy Mostmodern societiesbelieve that equality is a virtue, at least to some extent. In other words, people these societies try to minimize rank and power differences, and try to place limits on the power of people in authority. Hierarchy is differences in rank and power. Every soci

46、ety has hierarchy to some degree. In other words, some people have higher rank and more power tha n others, perhaps because they are older,stronger,wealthier, or have some kind of official positi on. In USculture, “ equality ” almost always means “ equality of opport unity ” , not equal wealth. Amer

47、ica ns tend to believe that, as muchas possible, all people should be give n an equal cha nee, but the n people deserve whatever rewards they work for. In con trast,Wester n Europea ns, especially, Scandin avia ns,tend to feel that equality of opport unity alone will not guara ntee social or materia

48、l equality. So these cultures place more emphasis on material equality, and their tax and social welfare systems are desig ned to en sure that differe nee in wealth betwee n citize ns is not large. 7. A prescription for culture shock. P61 “ Culture shock ” is ofte n used to describe what happe ns wh

49、e never a pers on encounters a culture different from his or her own. The term culture shock describes what happe ns whe n a sojour ner from culture A goes to live in culture B, and n eeds to adapt to life there. 1. accept the occurre nee of culture shock as n atural 2. lear n about the host culture

50、 3. find a logical reas on for everyth ing stra nge or bad about the host culture 4. look for the positive things in the host culture 5. avoid foreig ners who are critical of the host country 6. do not always say critical things about host culture 7. keep a good sense of humor 8. find ano ther forei

51、g ner who knows the host culture 9. make friends with people from the host culture 10. you won t lose your own culture 11. keep busy and active 12. if you feel fatigued, take a little vacatio n 13. prepare a prese ntatio n about your own culture 8. Why does PCS cause intercultural munication problem

52、s? P74 Projected cultural similarity is the tendency to assume that people from other cultures basically thi nk and feel more the same way we do. I n other words, we sometimes assume that while foreig ners may look differe nt, dress differe ntly, and speak differe nt la nguages, in side we are all m

53、ore or less the same. 1. People from differe nt culture assume they un dersta nd each other in stead of asking each other what they think. Because they each expect the other person to react more or less the same way they would, they dont check to see whether or not the other pers on actually has the

54、 same feeli ngsand react ionsthey would. For this reas on, the mis un dersta nding bee worse over time rather tha n gett ing better. 2. Lan guages are differe nt.3. Misi nterpret non-verbalmuni cati on.4. Stereotypes and prec on cepti ons. 5. Evaluate before really un dersta nding. 9. the golden rul

55、es -Do unto others what you would have them do unto you. P77 定義 Projected cultural similarity The sentence means that it s better not to do things to others what you don t want others do to you. This behavior shows the phe nomena“ Projected cultural similarity ” . In our cultural system, if you don

56、t like thing done to you, you just don t impose on others. It s a kind of virtue. But from the aspect of PCS, people just assume people from other cultures view things the same way we do. What we think is right, we con sider others will think it is right, too. However, it just does n t work out like

57、 that. Because of differe nt cultural backgro und, we have differe nt in terpretati ons of everyth ing happe ned .we can not expect others to think or act the same as we do. 10. ment on: conformity in Western cultures. P83 定義：” loose culture ” and “ tight culture ” Chin ese culture is tight culture

58、,and wester n cultures are loose cultures. So con formity in wester n cultures is less tha n that in Chin ese culture. Western individualist cultures tend to belooser ” than collectivist cultures. This tendency toward loose ness can be see n in a variety of ways. One reflect ion is a widespread relu

59、ctanee to pass laws that prohibit unusual behavior.Another reflect ion can be see n in Wester n advertis ing. 11. ment on: What factors lead to /contribute to looseness or tightness in culture ? P86 定義：” loose culture ” and “ tight culture ” 1. the degree of cha nge in the populati on-the more peopl

60、e move, the looser and in dividualist a society tends to be“ a country on the wheels ” 2. the density of the population small dense society tend to be collectivist, hence tighter. Large dense society tend to be more plex, hence not quite so tight- “ a melt ing pot ” 3. the number of choices availabl