土木工程類外文文獻(xiàn)翻譯17219855

1、薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅

2、薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆

3、蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄

4、艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄

5、芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞

6、莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅

7、莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃

8、荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈

9、蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂

10、蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃

11、薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈

12、蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁

13、薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)

14、芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀

15、艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀

16、芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁

17、莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿

18、莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿

19、蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀

20、蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈

21、蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿

22、薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿

23、薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇

24、薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈

25、芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈

26、羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆

27、蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇

28、莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇

29、莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄肆莇蒂螀羂莆蚅薂羈蒞莄袈襖羈蕆蟻螀羈蕿袆聿羀艿蠆羅罿莁襖袁肈蒃蚇螆肇薆蒀肅肆蒞蚆肁肅

30、蒈薈羇肅薀螄袃肄艿薇蝿肅莂螂肈肂蒄薅羄膁薆螀袀膀芆薃螆腿蒈蝿螂腿薁螞肀膈芀袇羆膇莃蝕袂膆蒅裊螈芅薇蚈肇芄芇蒁羃芃荿蚆衿芃薂葿裊節(jié)芁螅螁芁莄薈聿芀蒆螃羅艿薈薆袁莈羋螁螇莇莀薄 外文文獻(xiàn)翻譯 建筑工程學(xué)院土木工程系土木084班 院 系：_ 張紹云 班 級(jí)：_付佳麗 韓有民姓 名：_指 導(dǎo) 教 師：_2012年2月20 日 2 外文翻譯2.1 reinforced concreteplain concrete is formed from a hardened mixture of cement ,water ,fine aggregate, coarse aggregate (crushed st

31、one or gravel),air, and often other admixtures. the plastic mix is placed and consolidated in the formwork, then cured to facilitate the acceleration of the chemical hydration reaction lf the cement/water mix, resulting in hardened concrete. the finished product has high compressive strength, and lo

32、w resistance to tension, such that its tensile strength is approximately one tenth lf its compressive strength. consequently, tensile and shear reinforcement in the tensile regions of sections has to be provided to compensate for the weak tension regions in the reinforced concrete element.it is this

33、 deviation in the composition of a reinforces concrete section from the homogeneity of standard wood or steel sections that requires a modified approach to the basic principles of structural design. the two components of the heterogeneous reinforced concrete section are to be so arranged and proport

34、ioned that optimal use is made of the materials involved. this is possible because concrete can easily be given any desired shape by placing and compacting the wet mixture of the constituent ingredients are properly proportioned, the finished product becomes strong, durable, and, in combination with

35、 the reinforcing bars, adaptable for use as main members of any structural system.the techniques necessary for placing concrete depend on the type of member to be cast: that is, whether it is a column, a bean, a wall, a slab, a foundation. a mass columns, or an extension of previously placed and har

36、dened concrete. for beams, columns, and walls, the forms should be well oiled after cleaning them, and the reinforcement should be cleared of rust and other harmful materials. in foundations, the earth should be compacted and thoroughly moistened to about 6 in. in depth to avoid absorption of the mo

37、isture present in the wet concrete. concrete should always be placed in horizontal layers which are compacted by means of high frequency power-driven vibrators of either the immersion or external type, as the case requires, unless it is placed by pumping. it must be kept in mind, however, that over

38、vibration can be harmful since it could cause segregation of the aggregate and bleeding of the concrete.hydration of the cement takes place in the presence of moisture at temperatures above 50f. it is necessary to maintain such a condition in order that the chemical hydration reaction can take place

39、. if drying is too rapid, surface cracking takes place. this would result in reduction of concrete strength due to cracking as well as the failure to attain full chemical hydration.it is clear that a large number of parameters have to be dealt with in proportioning a reinforced concrete element, suc

40、h as geometrical width, depth, area of reinforcement, steel strain, concrete strain, steel stress, and so on. consequently, trial and adjustment is necessary in the choice of concrete sections, with assumptions based on conditions at site, availability of the constituent materials, particular demand

41、s of the owners, architectural and headroom requirements, the applicable codes, and environmental reinforced concrete is often a site-constructed composite, in contrast to the standard mill-fabricated beam and column sections in steel structures.a trial section has to be chosen for each critical loc

42、ation in a structural system. the trial section has to be analyzed to determine if its nominal resisting strength is adequate to carry the applied factored load. since more than one trial is often necessary to arrive at the required section, the first design input step generates into a series of tri

43、al-and-adjustment analyses.the trial-and adjustment procedures for the choice of a concrete section lead to the convergence of analysis and design. hence every design is an analysis once a trial section is chosen. the availability of handbooks, charts, and personal computers and programs supports th

44、is approach as a more efficient, compact, and speedy instructional method compared with the traditional approach of treating the analysis of reinforced concrete separately from pure design.2.2 earthwork because earthmoving methods and costs change more quickly than those in any other branch of civil

45、 engineering, this is a field where there are real opportunities for the enthusiast. in 1935 most of the methods now in use for carrying and excavating earth with rubber-tyred equipment did not exist. most earth was moved by narrow rail track, now relatively rare, and the main methods of excavation,

46、 with face shovel, backacter, or dragline or grab, though they are still widely used are only a few of the many current methods. to keep his knowledge of earthmoving equipment up to date an engineer must therefore spend tine studying modern machines. generally the only reliable up-to-date informatio

47、n on excavators, loaders and transport is obtainable from the makers.earthworks or earthmoving means cutting into ground where its surface is too high ( cuts ), and dumping the earth in other places where the surface is too low ( fills). toreduce earthwork costs, the volume of the fills should be eq

48、ual to the volume of the cuts and wherever possible the cuts should be placednear to fills of equal volume so as to reduce transport and double handlingof the fill. this work of earthwork design falls on the engineer who lays out the road since it is the layout of the earthwork more than anything el

49、se which decides its cheapness. from the available maps ahd levels, the engineering must try to reach as many decisions as possible in the drawing office by drawing cross sections of the earthwork. on the site when further information becomes available he can make changes in jis sections and layout,

50、but the drawing lffice work will not have been lost. it will have helped him to reach the best solution in the shortest time.the cheapest way of moving earth is to take it directly out of the cut and drop it as fill with the same machine. this is not always possible, but when it canbe done it is ide

51、al, being both quick and cheap. draglines, bulldozers and face shovels an do this. the largest radius is obtained with the dragline,and the largest tonnage of earth is moved by the bulldozer, though only over short distances.the disadvantages of the dragline are that it must dig below itself, it can

52、not dig with force into compacted material, it cannot dig on steep slopws, and its dumping and digging are not accurate.face shovels are between bulldozers and draglines, having a larger radius of action than bulldozers but less than draglines. they are anle to dig into a vertical cliff face in a wa

53、y which would be dangerous tor a bulldozer operator and impossible for a dragline. each piece of equipment should be level of their tracks and for deep digs in compact material a backacter is most useful, but its dumping radius is considerably less than that of the same escavator fitted with a face

54、shovel.rubber-tyred bowl scrapers are indispensable for fairly level digging where the distance of transport is too much tor a dragline or face shovel. they can dig the material deeply ( but only below themselves ) to a fairly flat surface, carry it hundreds of meters if need be, then drop it and le

55、vel it roughly during the dumping. for hard digging it is often found economical to keep a pusher tractor ( wheeled or tracked ) on the digging site, to push each scraper as it returns to dig. as soon as the scraper is full,the pusher tractor returns to the beginning of the dig to heop to help the n

56、est scraper.bowl scrapers are often extremely powerful machines;many makers build scrapers of 8 cubic meters struck capacity, which carry 10 m heaped. the largest self-propelled scrapers are of 19 m struck capacity ( 25 m heaped )and they are driven by a tractor engine of 430 horse-powers.dumpers ar

57、e probably the commonest rubber-tyred transport since they can also conveniently be used for carrying concrete or other building materials. dumpers have the earth container over the front axle on large rubber-tyred wheels, and the container tips forwards on most types, though in articulated dumpers

58、the direction of tip can be widely varied. the smallest dumpers have a capacity of about 0.5 m , and the largest standard types are of about 4.5 m . special types include the self-loading dumper of up to 4 m and the articulated type of about 0.5 m . the distinction between dumpers and dump trucks mu

59、st be remembered .dumpers tip forwards and the driver sits behind the load. dump trucks are heavy, strengthened tipping lorries, the driver travels in front lf the load and the load is dumped behind him, so they are sometimes called rear-dump trucks. 2.3 safety of structuresthe principal scope of specifications is to provide general principl