研究生英語段落寫作jsp

1、第一節(jié)時(shí)間空間順序法1、講述故事或敘述事件時(shí)，最簡單最清楚的方法就是按照時(shí)間順序來描述事情的發(fā)展 過程：先發(fā)生的先寫，后發(fā)生的后寫。例如：1) the last person to approach the couple was a short, elderly woman who smiled as she congratulated them not by name but as hwifeh and "husband："i'm aunt esther gubbins,h she said. nfm here to tell you you are going

2、to live a good life and be happy you will work hard and love each othc匚”then quickly, for such a short, portly, elderly person, she disappeared.2) one evening her husband had fallen asleep while reading a spy novel. she wrote a note on the envelope and left it on his book: ”husband，i have gone next

3、door to help mrs. norton with her sick children/1the next morning she saw he had written below her message: ”wife, i missed you. you thought i was asleep, but i was just resting my eyes and thinking about that peculiar woman who talked to us in church a long time ago. it has always seemed to me that

4、 she was the wrong shape for a heavenly messenger. anyway, ifs time to stop wondering whether she came from heaven or a nearby town. what matters is this: whoever she was, aunt esther gubbins was right/*請看以下段落分析：sandy walked into the bathroom and turned on the showe匚 at first, the water felt cold. i

5、t helped her wake up. then, as the water got hotter, she thought, ”this shower feels great and in here i can be alone and sing no one disturbs me in here.” she grabbed the soap and washed thoroughly, including her hai匚 if she stayed in the shower too long, her mom or dad usually banged on the door t

6、o rush her so she grabbed a towel and dried off.in the paragraph, the author describes sandy's series of actions according to the order of the sequence: the first thing first and the second thing second. here is a chart of the first few sentences just to show sandy's actions that have been l

7、inked together with time markerstime markerssequenced actionssandy walked into the bathroom.andturned on the showe匚at first,she woke up with the help of the cold wate匚then,she thought.常見的病例評析：病例一：when we came back from the store that christmas eve, i realized i had been given too much change from my

8、 final purchase. i showed the money to my brother and then to my fathcr. my father didn't like it and he made me give back the money. my brothers and sisters all laughed at me. 1 should have returned the money myself without father's having to tell me.上而這篇短文試圖敘述作者生活中發(fā)生的一件重要事情，但原文中有許多不足之處。文 章

9、中沒冇對話，沒冇高潮，只是對故事進(jìn)行了簡單的描寫，忽略了許多重要的細(xì)節(jié)。讀者在 讀完文章后，不但對作者所描述的故事理解不清，反而會有很多費(fèi)解之處。修改時(shí)要明確講 故事的目的，并且應(yīng)該在必要之處用具體的細(xì)節(jié)把故事形象地再現(xiàn)給讀者。修改稿：when the salesclerk gave me back my change, i thought she had given me too much. at age six, i didn't count money very well, and so when we got home, i showed the coins to my bro

10、ther."i gave her fifty ccntsjl said, "and she gave me this："that is sixty cents/5 he said in admiring voice i seldom heard from him. "you are smarter than i thought.” beaming with pride, chortling over my new fortune, i went sailing in to my father to receive his praise“the sales

11、clerk gave me too much change： i saidwith deliberation, he went over all my purchases with me. he examined my dog-eared christmas list and the sales slips "get your coat：' he said.the news flashed through the house, and, as my father and i prepared to leave, my brother and sisters hid behin

12、d the banisters and silently mocked me.“honor." my father said as he closed the front door."honesty. he said as we walked to the car. "fairness” he said as he started the ca匚 “these arc virtues without which civilization cannot endure. "money/ he went on as wc backed away from th

13、e curb, "may threaten virtue but must never be allowed to defeat it. let this be a lesson to you： and in turn it was, though 1 could not have said in what.修改后，讀者可以對人物的活動和談話的細(xì)節(jié)有了清晰的了解。故事的意義耐人尋味, 給作者幼小的心靈留下了深刻的印象。病例二：getting up in the morning, i liked to take a walk- it was raining, but not heavi

14、ly drop by drop, it dropped on my head i felt 1 was in high spirits along the path, there are many flowers which put their heads up to absorb their drinks they had been washed up completely. their appearance showed freshly and lively. how lovely they look! and i was refreshed and forgot all my troub

15、les and unhappy events記叔文中敘述過去發(fā)生的事情要用過去時(shí)，但表示經(jīng)常反復(fù)發(fā)生的事情應(yīng)用一般現(xiàn)在 時(shí)。另外，上文中還有幾處用詞上的錯(cuò)誤。修改稿：i like taking a walk after getting up in the morning. but one day, it started to rain when i was walking. drop by drop, the rain fell on my head. walking in the rain, i was in high spirits along the path, i saw many l

16、ittle yellow flowers which put their heads up to absorb their drinks. they had been completely washed, appearing fresh and lively. 1 had also been refreshed, forgetting all my troubles and unhappy events2、我們在描述某空間吋，不管此空間大小如何，都得按照一定的空間順序來描述不同 的部位或細(xì)節(jié)。因此，我們應(yīng)該找出所描述事物z間的空間關(guān)系，從而安排寫作順序，如果 描述方法混亂，則會使讀者感到迷惑不

17、解。請看以下段落分析：1) in the middle of the rectangular-shaped courtyard stood three magnolia trees, all in full bloom. a little girl was hopping among them, now gazing at a bud, now collecting fallen petals. under one of the trees stood her parents, who, while keeping an eye on her, were examining the milk

18、white blossoms with great interest and admiration. in front of another tree a young couple, fresh and bright as the flowers, were posing for a picture. at one end of the courtyard a group of youngsters had gathered behind an artist painting a flourishing limb, which looked so charming and real that

19、a boy stooped to sniff at a half-open flower. at the opposite end a few elderly men and women stood admiring the leafless flowering trees and the people looking at them.該段中，作者從院中心的樹木著手，描述樹下及樹周圍的人（女孩，她的父母及一對年 輕夫婦），然后描述庭院兩邊離樹木鮫遠(yuǎn)的人們（藝術(shù)家及其身后的年輕人，年長的老人和 婦人）。簡而言之，該段屮作者按照由近及遠(yuǎn)，由屮心到邊遠(yuǎn)的順序來進(jìn)行描述。2） mr. cook, a

20、renowned american historian, arranges the books on his bookshelves in a unique way. in the upper right hand comer, there arc books about the development of the early colonies in new england and the war of independence. right under them can be found books on the slave trade, the plantation system and

21、 the growth of the southern states. the left side of the shelf contains hundreds of books concerning subjects of the westward movement, indian culture, the cowboys' contributions to american society and the gold rush in california. from the description above, one can see that m匚 cook regards his

22、 bookshelves as a map of the u.s. and arranges his history books accordingly. it is odd, but it is convenient.該段屮，作者對于書的排放的描述既簡單乂清楚，根據(jù)描述，讀者很容易就能找到書的 位置。作者在此段中采用山上到下，由左到右的順序來進(jìn)行描述。常見的錯(cuò)誤評析： 病例一our classroom is on the third floor of the teaching building. it is a large room about twenty feet long and te

23、n feet wide. under the window, there are two radiators for heating in the wintertime the walls are light green and the ceiling is white. on the opposite walls, near one end there is a brown doo匚there arc about forty light-colored chairs in the room for the students. the teacher's desk is in fron

24、t of the blackboard. there is a large blackboard on the front wall of the room with chalks and erasers on the ledge on the whole, it is a pleasant and comfortable room. we study in this classroom everyday.上面這篇描寫文違反了空間順序?qū)懽鞣ǖ脑瓌t，給人一種雜亂無章的感覺。修改稿：our classroom is on the third floor of the teaching buildi

25、ng. it is a large room about twenty feet long and ten feet wide. the walls are light green and the ceiling is white on the front of the wall, there is a large blackboard with chalks and erasers on the ledge on its left, there is a brown door. on its right, there are two large windows, under which th

26、ere are two radiators for heating in the winter- time.there are about forty light-colored chairs in the room for the students, and the teachers desk is in the front of the room. on the whole, it is a pleasant and comfortable room, in which we study every day. we like this foom.第二節(jié)定義法定義是通過準(zhǔn)確的文字把某一事物的

27、屬性、特征、功能等解釋清范。下定義的最大困難 是要搞清楚被定義的概念，然后組織好定義所必要的信息，最后選擇準(zhǔn)確的語言文字來表達(dá) 它。定義常見于科技文獻(xiàn)，同時(shí)它又是說明文屮不可缺少的。一般說來，文章的專業(yè)性越強(qiáng), 讀者的專業(yè)知識越少，那么需要定義的概念可能就會越多。因此，了解如何寫定義是很有必 耍的。那么，如何下定義呢？通常情況下，有四種下定義的方法。第一，利用特性、功能來下定義。如：an axe is used for cutting wool.a tiger has black and orange stripes and is mostly found in india.第二，結(jié)合類別來下

28、定義。一般是把用途和特性結(jié)合起來，給出清楚明了的定義。如： an axe is a kind of tool used for cutting wool.a tiger is an animal with black and orange stripes that is mostly found in india.第三，通過舉例來下定義。這種下定義方法不太嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)，只是列舉岀此時(shí)此地頭腦屮想 到的有關(guān)具體實(shí)例罷了。如：chairs, tables, sofas and wardrobes一these arc all examples of what we mean by furniture.第四，

29、使用否定詞來下定義。如：by "patriot i do not mean someone who says, "my country is right or wrong： by "patriof i mean a lover of his country who will defend it to the death when it is right, but will also be the first to criticize it when it is wrong.一個(gè)好的定義町以只使用其中的一種方法，也可以同時(shí)使用幾種，甚至全部四種方法。1、定義+舉例常

30、用的舉例表達(dá)式有：common/typical examples are., main types are., such as. 等。 例女口： an acid is a compound which neutralizes （使中和）a solution of sodium hydroxide （氫氧化鈉）.common examples are sulphuric （硫的）and nitric （氮的） acid.酸是中和氫氧化鈉溶液的化合物，常見的有硫酸和硝酸。2、定義+用途常用的表達(dá)式有：therefore/consequently/as a result, it is widely

31、used for.或者 one of its main uses is 等。例如：aluminium is a metal which is light in weight. therefore, it is used for making aircraft.鋁是一種很輕的金屬，因此被用來制造飛機(jī)。3、定義+主要部件常用的表達(dá)式有：it consists of its main components are.等。例如：a pair of spectacles is a device for correcting eye-sigh匸 it consists of three main parts

32、: a lens for each eye and a frame.眼鏡是矯正視力的器具，由三個(gè)主要部件組成：兩只鏡片和 一個(gè)鏡框。下面我們讀一篇下定義的范文，以了解它在文章中是如何使用的。the word histoiy has several meanings. in its broadest sense, it denotes the whole of the human past. more restricted is the notion that history is the recorded past, that is, that part of human life which

33、 has left some sort of record such as folk tales, artifacts, or written documents. finally, history may be defined as that which historians write about the past.本段堪稱卞定義寫作的典范。在這個(gè)段落里，作者使用了許多下定義時(shí)所需要的套語, 如：has several meanings （有好兒個(gè)意思），in its broadest sense, it denotes （從最廣義上講， 它的意思是指）,more restricted i

34、s the notion that （較為狹義的意思是）,that is （也即）,such as （諸如）,may be defined as （可以界定為）等等。這些套語使得該段銜接自然，連貫通順， 層次分明，從而把history這個(gè)詞解釋的清清楚楚。需要注意的是，在下定義時(shí)，切不可犯以下兩種錯(cuò)誤：1）舉例代替定義。舉例必須出現(xiàn)在定義z后，但決不能以舉例代替定義。例如：a dictionary is a book like collins english dictionary.詞典是類似柯林斯英語詞典那 樣的書。這種以舉例來給詞典下定義的方法不能把詞典的特色與功能解釋清楚，不知道柯林 斯英

35、語詞典的人仍不清是詞典的確切含義。因此，上句不妨改為：a dictionary is a book which explains the words of a language and is arranged in alphabetical order.詞典是解釋某種語言的詞匯并按字母順序排列的書。2）省略類屬詞或特別局性。定義因省略了類屬詞或特別屬性而變得不完整。例如：a. an ammeter is used to measure electric current.安培計(jì)是用來測量電流的。b. a degree is given by a university to a student w

36、ho has passed the appropriate examinations. 學(xué)位是由人學(xué)頒發(fā)給通過相關(guān)考試的學(xué)生。顯然上述兩句小省略了總類詞或特別屬性，因此定義不完整或不能稱作定義，可分別 改為:a. an ammeter is an instrument which is used to measure electric current. 安培tl是用來汝!寸 量電流的儀表。b a degree is an academic qualification which is given by a university to a student who has passed the a

37、ppropriate examinations.學(xué)位是由人學(xué)頒發(fā)給考試合格學(xué)生的學(xué)術(shù)資格證明。相關(guān)練習(xí)1. the following eight sentences have been mixed up. join the sentences on the left with thecon-ect ones on the right.(1) a generator is a machine(2) a biologist is a person(3) a cucumber is a vegetable(4) a shop is a place(5) a knife is an instrume

38、nt(6) a dentist is a person(7) an encyclopedia is booka. who takes care of peopled teeth.b. where things arc bought and sold.c. which attracts bodies towards the centre of the earth.d. which is used for cutting things.e. which produces electricity.f. who studies living organisms.g. which is long and

39、 round with a dark green skin andlight green watery flesh.(8) gravity is a forceh. which gives information on various subjects in alphabetical order.2. complete the following one-sentence definitions.(1) steel is a metal which is .(2) a telescope is an instrument used for.(3) water is a liquid which

40、.(4) a college is an institution where.(5) an english sentence is a piece of language containing.(6) an airport is a place at which(7) a square is a plane figure with(8) cement is a powder with the property of.第三節(jié)過程法我們在解釋事情的發(fā)展過程時(shí)，通常按照事悄發(fā)生的先后順序逐步進(jìn)行描述。由于事 情的發(fā)展是逐步進(jìn)行的，因而描述事情的發(fā)展順序是相當(dāng)重要的。在此類段落寫作中，通常 使用祈使句

41、，以及由不確指代詞you做主語的句子，并幾整個(gè)段落著眼于一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)態(tài)。例 如：1 once you encounter a person who has stopped breathing, you should begin immediately to do mouth-to-mouth breathing. first, place the victim on his back and remove any foreign matter from his mouth with your fingers then tilt his head backwards, so that his ch

42、in is pointing up. next, pull his mouth open and his jaw forward, pinch his nostrils shut to prevent the air which you blow into his mouth from escaping through his nose then place your mouth tightly over the victim's blowing into his mouth until you see his chest rise. then turn your head to th

43、e side and listen for the outrush of air which indicates an air exchange repeat the process. 2. it is necessary for a person to know how to post a parcel, since almost everyone has relatives and friends living far away and he may like to send them something. different objects are packed in different

44、 ways things like bottles of medicine and watches should be put into wooden boxes to avoid breakage. after you have packed the objects, put down your address and that of the addressee on the wrapping. give the parcel to the postal clerk for him to check he will then give you a form to fill in having

45、 filled in the form, you give it together with the parcel to the clerk he will weigh the parcel and tell you how much you should pay. you pay the money and get a receipt. be sure to keep your receipt until you are sure that the addressee has received the parcel. if anything wrong should happen to yo

46、ur parcel, you can show the receipt to the clerk and ask to be reimbursed 第七節(jié)舉例法、列舉法1. 列舉法(details)列舉法是通過列舉一系列的論據(jù)對topic sentence中擺出的論點(diǎn)進(jìn)行廣泛、全面地陳 述或解釋，列舉的順序可以按照所列各點(diǎn)內(nèi)容的相對重要性、時(shí)間、空間等進(jìn)行。yesterday was one of those awful days for me when everything i did went wrong first, i didn't hear my alarm clock an

47、d arrived late for work. then, 1 didn't read my diary properly and forgot to get to an important meeting with my boss during the coffee break, i dropped my coffee cup and spoilt my new skirt. at lunch time, i left my purse on a bus and lost all the money that was in it. after lunch, my boss was

48、angry because i hadnft gone to the meeting then i didnrt notice a sign on a door that said "wet painth and so i spoilt my jacket too. when i got home i couldn't get into my flat because i had left my key in my office so i broke a window to get in and cut my hand.根據(jù)本段主題句小的關(guān)鍵詞組everything i di

49、d went wrong,作者列舉了 8點(diǎn)內(nèi)容，分別 由 first, then, during the coffee break, after lunch time 等連接詞語引 hl,使得該文條理清楚、脈 絡(luò)分明、內(nèi)容連貫。常丿ij 丁 列舉法的過渡連接詞有：for one thing , for another, finally, besides, moreover, one another , still another, first, second, also 等。2. 舉例法(example)作者通過舉出具體事例來闡述、說明主題句的內(nèi)容，嚴(yán)格地講，舉例法也是列舉法的 種，它們的區(qū)別

50、在于：列舉法側(cè)重羅列事實(shí)，所列事實(shí)力求全面；而舉例法側(cè)重通過舉出 典型事例來解釋作者觀點(diǎn)，且事例可多可少。我們來看下而這個(gè)用舉例法展開的段落：there are many different forms of exercises to suit different tastes for example, those who enjoy competitive sports may take up ball games for another example, if they prefer to exercise alone, they can have a run or take a walk

51、 in the morning or in the evening besides, people can go swimming in the summer and go skating in the winter. in short, no matter what their interests are, people can always find more than one sports that are suitable to them.本段采用了三個(gè)事例來說明主題句小的關(guān)鍵詞組different forms of exercises,這三個(gè)例 子分別由連接訶for example,

52、 for another example和besides引出，最后由in short引導(dǎo)的結(jié) 尾句總結(jié)全段內(nèi)容。舉例法屮常川的連接詞有：for example(instance), one example is, besides, furthermore, moreover, in addition 等 第四節(jié)比較和對照比較和対照是常用的一種寫作方法。我們比較當(dāng)今的中國和過去的中國，東方文化和 西方文化，漢語和英語等等。通過比較和對照，我們能更清楚地了解事物。嚴(yán)格地說，比較是指出兩者或兩者以上的相同點(diǎn)；而對照則是指出其不同點(diǎn)。但是在 實(shí)際通用小，比較和對照往往同時(shí)出現(xiàn)，因?yàn)橐话闱闆r下，我們既要

53、比較二者z間的相似z 處，又要對照其不同z處。比較和対照的目的是為了指出-物優(yōu)于另一物。在這里需要指出的是，中國學(xué)生長期 以來深受“一分為二”觀點(diǎn)的影響，力求做到所謂的“客觀公正”，抱著凡事各有千秋的態(tài) 度，比較或?qū)Ρ戎蟛蛔鋈魏卧u論，結(jié)果成了為比較和對比而比較和對比。切記：要把比較 和對比看作是一個(gè)段落的擴(kuò)展方法，而不是寫作的ii的。比較和對比的h的不只是指出異同 點(diǎn)或優(yōu)缺點(diǎn)，更重要的是為了勸說、解釋或提供信息。在比較和對比的文章中，側(cè)重點(diǎn)耍么 在比較，要么在對比。運(yùn)川比較和對照的方法拓展段落時(shí)，有兩種基本的安排方式。一種是先此后彼式。假 定我們把要比較的兩個(gè)項(xiàng)目分別稱作a和b,那么運(yùn)用這種

54、方式應(yīng)該先把所有有關(guān)a的情 況敘述完畢z后，再接著講b的情況。需要注意的是，在這種寫作方式中，二者z間比較 和對照的方面要具有同一性，并且要按照相同的順序來進(jìn)行寫作。用符號表示應(yīng)為al, a2, a3； bl, b2, b3這種方式也稱為整體式比較或整體式對照。另一種是逐項(xiàng)式。如果要比 較的項(xiàng)冃仍然是a和b,那么該模式實(shí)際上是a與bz間的來回切換。用符號表示則為： al, bl； a2, b2； a3, b3；.以下段落是逐項(xiàng)式比較的一個(gè)典范：arc you aware of the striking similarities between two of the most popular u

55、.s. presidents, abraham lincoln and john f. kennedy? a minor point is that the names lincoln and kennedy both have seven letters. both are remembered for their sense of humor, as well as for their interest in civil rights. lincoln became president in 1860, kennedy in 1960. lincoln's secretary wa

56、s mrs. kennedy; kennedy's secretary was mrs. lincoln. neither man took the advice of his secretary not to make a public appearance on the day on which he was assassinated. lincoln and kennedy were both killed on a friday in the presence of their wives. both assassins, john wilkes booth and lee h

57、arvey oswald, have fifteen letters in their names, and both were murdered before they could be brought to trial. just as lincoln was succeeded by a southern democrat named johns on, so was kennedy. andrew johnson (lincoln's successor) was born in 18()& lyndon johnson (kennedy's successor

58、) was born in 1908. and finally, the same caisson carried the bodies of both men in their funeral processions.這是一個(gè)運(yùn)川逐點(diǎn)分析法展開的一個(gè)比較段落。作者在主題句之卜羅列出了肯尼迪 和林肯兩位美國總統(tǒng)的十一個(gè)共同點(diǎn)。該段體現(xiàn)了逐點(diǎn)分析法條目清晰、比較和對比效呆明 顯的優(yōu)點(diǎn)。如果我們想指出兩個(gè)人或事物之間的不同而不詳細(xì)加以討論的話，通常使用逐項(xiàng)式對 照法，在這種寫作方法中，我們只須指出一個(gè)人或物的某一特點(diǎn)，然后陳述另一個(gè)人或物在 這方面的不同即可。請看下例：the televison

59、western of several years ago differs greatly from the western of today. ten years ago, for example, the swindler or bank robber in a western area could be identified not by the crimes he committed so much as by the color of the clothing he wore一which was black. today the television western reveals the villain by mannerisms and personality. at one time, every western had a superhuman, invincible &quo