英語語言學教程課件

1、1Chapter FourFrom Word to Text2lSyntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.l句法學研究組詞成句的規(guī)則，研究句子內(nèi)部組成成分間的關(guān)系。3lSyntactic relations can be analysed i

2、nto three kinds:lrelations of positionlrelations of substitutability relations of co-occurrence1. Syntactic relations（句法關(guān)系）（句法關(guān)系）41.1 Relations of Position （位置關(guān)系）lFor language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases that can occu

3、r in a clause. lThe boy kicked the ball NP1 NP2 Subject Object5lPositional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. lIf the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an utterance eith

4、er ungrammatical or nonsensical at all. lFor example,6lThe boy kicked the balll*Boy the ball kicked thel*The ball kicked the boylThe teacher saw the studentslThe students saw the teacher7lPositional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations（橫組合關(guān)系）（橫組合關(guān)系） observed by F. de

5、Saussure. lThey are also called Horizontal Relations or simply Chain Relations. 8lWord order is one of the basic ways to classify languages in the world: lSVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS. lEnglish belongs to SVO type, though this does not mean that SVO is the only possible word order. 91.2 Relation

6、 of Substitutability （替換關(guān)系）lThe Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure. The _ smiles. man boy girl10lIt also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammaticall

7、y for a single word of a particular set.strong manlThe tallest boy smiles.pretty girl yesterday.lHe went therelast week. the day before.11lThis is also called Associative Relations by Saussure, and Paradigmatic Relations（縱聚合關(guān)系）（縱聚合關(guān)系）by Hjemslev（葉爾姆斯列夫葉爾姆斯列夫） lTo make it more understandable, they ar

8、e called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations. 121.3 Relation of Co-occurrence （同現(xiàn)關(guān)系/縱橫關(guān)系）lIt means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. lFor instance, a nominal phras

9、e can be preceded by a determiner and adjective(s) and followed by a verbal phrase. 13lRelations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations. 142. Grammatical construction and its constituents 2.1 Grammatical Construction GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION （語法結(jié)構(gòu)（語

10、法結(jié)構(gòu)體）體）or CONSTRUCT can be used to refer to any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains.15lOn the level of syntax, we distingu

11、ish for any construction in a language its external and its internal properties. lThe external syntax of a construction refers to the properties of the construction as a whole, that is to say, anything speakers know about the construction that is relevant to the larger syntactic contexts in which it

12、 is welcome.lFor instance, the different terms such as clausal type, phrasal type are assigned to the properties of the constructions respectively. 1616Subject +Verb +Object (clausal type)Mary (subject)ate (verb)an apple (object).Determiner +Noun (phrasal type)this (determiner)edition (noun)2021-12-

13、19LINGUISTICS1717lIn the context of discourse/text analysis, construction refers to a token of a constructional type. lThe sentence The girl is giggling is recognised as “Subject + Predicate” type, but it is realized in a string The + girl + is + giggling. lIt is the construction in this sense that

14、can be analysed into constituents. 2021-12-19LINGUISTICS182.2 Immediate Constituents(直接成分直接成分)lConstituent（成分）（成分）is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction: lthe girl (NP)late the apple (VP)lthe girl ate the apple (S)1919lConstituents can be joined toge

15、ther with other constituents to form larger units. lIf two constituents, in the case of the example above, B (the girl) and C (ate the apple), are joined to form a hierarchically higher constituent A (“S” , here a sentence ), then B and C are said to be immediate constituents of A. 2021-12-19LINGUIS

16、TICS2020 A (Sentence) B CThe girl ate the apple2021-12-19LINGUISTICS2121lThis tree contains three Nodes. lThe top-most node, A, is the mother of the two lower nodes, B and C. lB and C are daughters of the same mother, and so we refer to them as sister nodes. lThe simple tree in the above represents

17、a constituent of category A which is composed of two parts, one of category B and the other of category C, occurring in that order. 2021-12-19LINGUISTICS2222lTo dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANALYSIS or IC analysis (直接成分分析法直接成分分析法)，the analysis of a

18、 sentence in terms of its immediate constituents-word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached2021-12-19LINGUISTICS2323lWhen a tree diagram is used to represent the constituent struc

19、ture of a grammatical unit (e.g. a phrase or sentence), syntactic categories are used to label the nodes; the most common of these are listed in the following: 2021-12-19LINGUISTICS2424Word-levelPhrasalN= nounA=adjectiveV=verbP=prepositionDet=determinerAdv=adverbConj=conjunctionNP=noun phraseAP=adje

20、ctive phraseVP=verb phrasePP=preposition phraseS=sentence or clause2021-12-19LINGUISTICS25Immediate Constituent Analysis(IC Analysis)The girl ate the apple2626Tree diagram S NP VPDet N V NP Det NThe girl ate the apple2021-12-19LINGUISTICS2727BracketinglIn contrast to tree diagram, BRACKETING is not

21、so common, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent structure of a grammatical unit. l(The) (girl) (ate) (the) (apple)lThe girl ate the apple2021-12-19LINGUISTICS28Advantages of IC AnalysislTo demonstrate the internal structure of a sentence clearlylTo reveal the ambiguitieslLe

22、ave the book on the shelf.29lLeave the book on the shelfl Leave the book on the shelf302.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions (向心結(jié)構(gòu)和離心向心結(jié)構(gòu)和離心結(jié)構(gòu)結(jié)構(gòu))lThe syntactic constructions analysed are of two main types: endocentric and exocentric constructions, depending on their distribution and the relat

23、ion between their constituents. 3131lENDOCENTRIC construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable CENTRE or HEAD.其整體功能與其某個或某些組成其整體功能與其某個或某些組成成分（單個詞或詞組）相同或相似，這個詞組是整體成分（單個詞或詞組）相同或

24、相似，這個詞組是整體的核心或中心。因此向心結(jié)構(gòu)也叫做中心結(jié)構(gòu)的核心或中心。因此向心結(jié)構(gòu)也叫做中心結(jié)構(gòu) 。lTypical endocentric constructions are noun phrases (the three small children), verb phrases(will have been leaving), adjective phrases (really very late).2021-12-19LINGUISTICS3233lThe head is not necessarily the last constituent. It may occur at t

25、he beginning.l the book on the shelflthe man about whom Ive been talkinglwalked away immediatelylhot beyond endurancelafraid of the talk34lEXOCENTRIC construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, the

26、re is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually includinglthe basic sentence, lthe prepositional phrase, lthe predicate (verb + object) construction, and lthe connective (be + complement) construction.35lThe boy smiled. (Neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure a

27、s a whole.)lHe hid behind the door. (Neither constituent can function as an adverbial.)lHe kicked the ball. (Neither constituent stands for the verb-object sequence.)lJohn seemed angry. (After division, the connective construction no longer exists.)36l朱德熙在語法答問中指出：l布龍姆菲爾德（布龍姆菲爾德（L.Bloomfield）把句法結(jié)構(gòu)分成兩

28、類：）把句法結(jié)構(gòu)分成兩類：至少有一個直接成分跟整體的語法功能相同的結(jié)構(gòu)叫至少有一個直接成分跟整體的語法功能相同的結(jié)構(gòu)叫“向向心結(jié)構(gòu)心結(jié)構(gòu)”。向心結(jié)構(gòu)里跟整體的功能相同的直接成分是這。向心結(jié)構(gòu)里跟整體的功能相同的直接成分是這個向心結(jié)構(gòu)的核心（個向心結(jié)構(gòu)的核心（head）。所有的直接成分都跟整體）。所有的直接成分都跟整體的語法功能不同的結(jié)構(gòu)叫離心結(jié)構(gòu)。（的語法功能不同的結(jié)構(gòu)叫離心結(jié)構(gòu)。（L.Bloomfield，Language，194-195頁）例如偏正結(jié)構(gòu)（包括定語頁）例如偏正結(jié)構(gòu)（包括定語加中心語的名詞性偏正結(jié)構(gòu)和狀語加中心語的謂詞性偏正加中心語的名詞性偏正結(jié)構(gòu)和狀語加中心語的謂詞性偏正結(jié)構(gòu)

29、）的語法功能跟它的后一個直接成分（中心語）相同，結(jié)構(gòu)）的語法功能跟它的后一個直接成分（中心語）相同，述賓結(jié)構(gòu)和述補結(jié)構(gòu)的語法功能都跟它的前一個直接成分述賓結(jié)構(gòu)和述補結(jié)構(gòu)的語法功能都跟它的前一個直接成分（述語）相同，所以都是向心結(jié)構(gòu)。主謂結(jié)構(gòu)的語法功能（述語）相同，所以都是向心結(jié)構(gòu)。主謂結(jié)構(gòu)的語法功能跟它的兩個直接成分（主語和謂語）都不一樣，所以是離跟它的兩個直接成分（主語和謂語）都不一樣，所以是離心結(jié)構(gòu)。所有由虛詞組成的句法結(jié)構(gòu)如介詞結(jié)構(gòu)，心結(jié)構(gòu)。所有由虛詞組成的句法結(jié)構(gòu)如介詞結(jié)構(gòu)，“的的”字結(jié)構(gòu)等等也都是離心結(jié)構(gòu)。聯(lián)合結(jié)構(gòu)的語法功能跟它的字結(jié)構(gòu)等等也都是離心結(jié)構(gòu)。聯(lián)合結(jié)構(gòu)的語法功能跟它的每一

30、項組成成分都相同，是一種多核心的向心結(jié)構(gòu)，布龍每一項組成成分都相同，是一種多核心的向心結(jié)構(gòu)，布龍姆菲爾德管它叫并列式向心結(jié)構(gòu)（姆菲爾德管它叫并列式向心結(jié)構(gòu)（co-ordinative endocentric construction）。）。37l布氏向心布氏向心/離心結(jié)構(gòu)理論的一些問題：離心結(jié)構(gòu)理論的一些問題：1 布氏的理論本身并不是完美無缺的。這一點布氏本人已經(jīng)有所布氏的理論本身并不是完美無缺的。這一點布氏本人已經(jīng)有所認識。并非所有的向心結(jié)構(gòu)其整體功能都與中心語或核心完全一認識。并非所有的向心結(jié)構(gòu)其整體功能都與中心語或核心完全一致，因此致，因此“向心向心/離心離心”結(jié)構(gòu)理論即使就英語來說也不

31、是一種能夠結(jié)構(gòu)理論即使就英語來說也不是一種能夠覆蓋所有合成短語的分析模式。覆蓋所有合成短語的分析模式。2 可以這樣理解向心可以這樣理解向心/離心結(jié)構(gòu)理論：在一個離心結(jié)構(gòu)理論：在一個AB結(jié)構(gòu)體中，如果結(jié)構(gòu)體中，如果AB的整體功能和其中的某個成分一致，那的整體功能和其中的某個成分一致，那AB就是向心結(jié)構(gòu)。否就是向心結(jié)構(gòu)。否則為離心結(jié)構(gòu)。跟整體功能一致的成分就是結(jié)構(gòu)核心。這個理解則為離心結(jié)構(gòu)。跟整體功能一致的成分就是結(jié)構(gòu)核心。這個理解在漢語中碰到了麻煩，在漢語中碰到了麻煩，“雷鋒精神雷鋒精神”成為雙核心的向心結(jié)構(gòu)，成為雙核心的向心結(jié)構(gòu)，“這本書的出版這本書的出版”中中“出版出版”變成了結(jié)構(gòu)核心。如果

32、從結(jié)構(gòu)上來變成了結(jié)構(gòu)核心。如果從結(jié)構(gòu)上來考慮，所有的結(jié)構(gòu)都是向心結(jié)構(gòu)。如果從功能上來考慮就有兩種考慮，所有的結(jié)構(gòu)都是向心結(jié)構(gòu)。如果從功能上來考慮就有兩種情況，一種是結(jié)構(gòu)核心和整體功能一致的結(jié)構(gòu)，另一種是結(jié)構(gòu)核情況，一種是結(jié)構(gòu)核心和整體功能一致的結(jié)構(gòu)，另一種是結(jié)構(gòu)核心和整體功能不一致的結(jié)構(gòu)。主謂短語、動賓短語在結(jié)構(gòu)上都是心和整體功能不一致的結(jié)構(gòu)。主謂短語、動賓短語在結(jié)構(gòu)上都是向心的，但是在功能上則不是向心的。至于叫他什么，那就無所向心的，但是在功能上則不是向心的。至于叫他什么，那就無所謂了。謂了。382.4 Coordination and Subordination lEndocentric

33、constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: lCoordinationlsubordination39Coordination 并列結(jié)構(gòu)并列結(jié)構(gòu)lCoordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a

34、conjunction such as and, but and or . lThese two or more words or phrases or clauses have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally. 40lCoordination of NPs:lNP the lady or NP the tigerlCoordination of VPs:lVP go to the library

35、 and VP read a book lCoordination of PPs: lPP down the stairs and PP out the door lCoordination of APs: lAP quite expensive and AP very beautifullCoordination of Ss:lS John loves Mary and S Mary loves John too.41lIn a coordinate sentence, two (or more) S constituents occur as daughters and co-heads

36、of a higher S.lOne property coordination reveals is that there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction. NP A man, a woman, a boy, a cat and a dog got into the car.lTherefore, coordination occupies its own place in the creativity of language: i.e.r

37、ecursiveness42Subordination 從屬結(jié)構(gòu)從屬結(jié)構(gòu)lSubordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. lThe subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. Cons

38、equently, they can be called modifiers. 43ltwo dogs Headl(My brother) can drink (wine). HeadlSwimming in the lake (is fun). Headl(The pepper was) hot beyond endurance. Head44Subordinate clauseslClauses can be used as subordinate constituents. There are three basic types of subordinate clauses: lcomp

39、lement clausesladjunct (or adverbial) clauseslrelative clauses45lJohn believes that the airplane was invented by an Irishman. (complement clause)lElizabeth opened her presents before John finished his dinner. (adverbial clause)lThe woman that I love is moving to the south. (relative clause) 463. Syn

40、tactic Function 句法功能句法功能lThe syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.lNames of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc. 473.1 Subject lIn some languages,

41、subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case. lThe typical example can be found in Latin, where subject is always in nominative case, such as pater and filius in the following examples.lpater filium amat (the father loves the son)lpatrum filius amat (the son loves the father) 48lIn Engl

42、ish, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the agent, or the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the agent. lThis definition seems to work for these sentences:lMary slapped John. A dog bit Bill. 49lbut is clearly wrong in the following examples:lJohn was

43、 bitten by a dog. lJohn underwent major heart surgery. lIn order to account for the case of subject in passive voice, we have two other terms “grammatical subject” (John) and “l(fā)ogical subject” (a dog). 50lAnother traditional definition of the subject is “what the sentence is about” (i.e., topic). lA

44、gain, this seems to work for many sentences, such aslBill is a very crafty fellow. lbut fails in others, such asl(Jack is pretty reliable, but) Bill I dont trust. lAs for Bill, I wouldnt take his promises very seriously. 51lAll three sentences seem to be “about” Bill; thus we could say that Bill is

45、the topic of all three sentences. lThe above sentences make it clear that the topic is not always the grammatical subject. lWhat characteristics do subjects have? Word order Pro-forms Agreement with verb Content questions Tag questions52Word order 詞序詞序lSubject ordinarily precedes the verb in the sta

46、tement: lSally collects stamps.l*Collects Sally stamps.53Pro-forms lThe first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject, which is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions:lHe loves me. lI love him.lWe threw stones at them.lThey threw stone

47、s at us. 54Agreement with the verblIn the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verb: lShe angers him. lThey anger him. lShe anger

48、s them. 55Content questionslIf the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchanged, as inlJohn stole the Queens picture from the British Council.lWho stole the Queens picture from the British council? 56lWhat would John steal, if he had the chance?lWh

49、at did John steal from the British Council?lWhere did John steal the Queens picture from?nWhen any other element of the sentence is replaced by a question word, an auxiliary verb must appear before the subject.57Tag questionlA tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always conta

50、ins a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence. lJohn loves Mary, doesnt he?lMary loves John, doesnt she?l*John loves Mary, doesnt she?583.2 Predicate lPredicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obli

51、gatory constituents other than the subject were considered together. lIt usually expresses actions, processes, and states that refer to the subject.lThe boy is running. (process)lPeter broke the glass. (action)lJane must be mad! (state)lThe word predicator is suggested for verb or verbs included in

52、a predicate.593.3 Object lTraditionally, object may refer to the “receiver” or “goal” of an action, and it is further classified into Direct Object and Indirect Object.lMother bought a doll.lMother gave my sister a doll. IO DO 60lIn some inflecting languages, object is marked by case labels: the acc

53、usative case (受格受格) for direct object, and the dative case (與格與格) for indirect object.lIn English, “object” is recognized by tracing its relation to word order (after the verb and preposition) and by inflections (of pro-nouns).lMother gave a doll to my sister.lJohn kicked me.61lModern linguists sugg

54、est that object refers to such an item that it can become subject in a passive transformation.lJohn broke the glass. The glass was broken by John.lPeter saw Jane. Jane was seen by Peter. Although there are nominal phrases in the following, they are by no means objects because they cannot be transfor

55、med into passive voice.lHe died last week.lThe match lasted three hours.lHe changed trains at Manchester. (*Trains were changed by him at Manchester.)62623.4 The Relation between Classes and Functions lClasses and functions determine each other, but not in any one-to-one relation.lA class item can p

56、erform several functions. lFor instance, a noun or a nominal phrase can function as the subject, object, modi-fier, adverbial and complement of a sentence.l A function can also be fulfilled by several classes. lFor instance, the subject of a sentence can be realized by a noun, pronoun, numeral, infi

57、nitive, etc.2021-12-19LINGUISTICS634. Category 范疇范疇lThe term category refers to the defining properties of these general units: lCategories of the noun: number, gender, case and countability lCategories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice644.1 Number 數(shù)數(shù)lNumber is a grammatical category used for the an

58、alysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural,(單數(shù)，雙數(shù)，復(fù)數(shù)單數(shù)，雙數(shù)，復(fù)數(shù)) etc. lIn English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural, such as dog: dogs. lNumber is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs, such as He lau

59、ghs: They laugh, this man: these men.65lIn other languages, for example, French, the manifestation of number can also be found in adjectives and articles.lle cheval royal (the royal horse) lles chevaux royaux (the royal horses)664.2 Gender 性性lSuch contrasts as “masculine : feminine : neuter”, “anima

60、te : inanimate”, etc. for the analysis of word classes. lThough there is a correlation between natural gender and grammatical gender, the assignment may seem quite arbitrary in many cases. lFor instance, in Latin, ignis fire is masculine, while flamma flame is feminine. 67lEnglish gender contrast ca