Internet的發(fā)展歷史中英文

1、THE HISTORY OF THE INTERNETThe Beginning - ARPAnetThe Internet started as a project by the US government. The object of the project was to create a means of communications between long distance points, in the event of a nation wide emergency or, more specifically, nuclear war. The project was called

2、 ARPAnet, and it is what the Internet started as. Funded specifically for military communication, the engineers responsible for ARPANet had no idea of the possibilities of an "Internet."By definition, an 'Internet' is four or more computers connected by a network.ARPAnet achieved i

3、ts network by using a protocol called TCP/IP. The basics around this protocol was that if information sent over a network failed to get through on one route, it would find another route to work with, as well as establishing a meansfor one computer to "talk" to another computer, regardless

4、of whether it was a PC or a Macintosh.By the 80's ARPAnet, just years away from becoming the more well known Internet,had 200 computers. The Defense Department, satisfiedwithARPAnets results, decided to fully adopt it into service, and connected manymilitary computers and resources into the netw

5、ork. ARPAnet then had 562 computers on its network. By the year 1984, it had over 1000 computers on its network.In 1986 ARPAnet(supposedly) shut down, but only the organization shut down, and the existing networks still existed between the more than 1000computers. It shut down due to a failied link

6、up with NSF, who wanted toconnect its 5 countywide super computers into ARPAnet.With the funding of NSF, new high speed lines were successfully installedat line speeds of 56k (a normal modem nowadays) through telephone linesin 1988. By that time, there were 28,174 computers on the (by then decided)

7、Internet. In 1989 there were 80,000 computers on it. By 1989, there were 290,000.Another network was built to support the incredible number of people joining. It was constructed in 1992.Today - The InternetToday, the Internet has becomeone of the most important technological advancements in the hist

8、ory of humanity. Everyone wants to get 'on line' to experience the wealth of information of the Internet. Millions of people nowuse the Internet, and it's predicted that by the year 2003 every single person on the planet will have Internet access. The Internet has truly becomea way of li

9、fe in our time and era, and is evolving so quickly its hard to determine where it will go next, as computer and network technology improve every day.HOW IT WORKS:It's a standard thing. People using the Internet. Shopping, playing games,conversing in virtual Internet environments.The Internet is

10、not a 'thing' itself. The Internet cannot just "crash." It functions the same way as the telephone system, only there is no Internet company that runs the Internet.The Internet is a collection of millioins of computers that are all connected to each other, or have the means to conn

11、ect to each other. The Internet is just like an office network, only it has millions of computers connected to it.The main thing about howthe Internet works is communication. Howdoes a computer in Houston know how to access data on a computer in Tokyo to view a webpage?Internet communication, commun

12、ication among computers connected to the Internet, is based on a language. This language is called TCP/IP.TCP/IP establishes a language for a computer to access and transmit data over the Internet system.But TCP/IP assumes that there is a physical connecetion between one computer and another. This i

13、s not usually the case. There would have to be a network wire that went to every computer connected to the Internet, but that would make the Internet impossible to access.The physical connection that is requireed is established by way of modems,phonelines, and other modem cable connections (like cab

14、le modems or DSL). Modems on computers read and transmit data over established lines,which could be phonelines or data lines. The actual hard core connections are established among computers called routers.A router is a computer that serves as a traffic controller for information.To explain this bet

15、ter, let's look at how a standard computer might view a webpage.1. The user's computer dials into an Internet Service Provider (ISP). The ISP might in turn be connected to another ISP, or a straight connection into the Internet backbone.2. The user launches a web browser like Netscape or Int

16、ernet Explorer and types in an internet location to go to.3. Here's where the tricky part comes in. First, the computer sends data about it's data request to a router. A router is a very high speed powerful computer running special software. The collection of routers in the world make what i

17、s called a "backbone," on which all the data on the Internet is transferred. The backbone presently operates at a speed ofseveral gigabytes per-second. Such a speed compared to a normal modemis like comparing the heat of the sun to the heat of an ice-cube.Routers handle data that is going

18、back and forth. A router puts small chunks of data into packages called packets, which function similarly to envelopes. So, when the request for the webpage goes through, it uses TCP/IP protocols to tell the router what to do with the data, where it's going, and overall where the user wants to g

19、o.4. The router sends these packets to other routers, eventually leading to the target computer. It's like whisper down the lane (only the information remains intact).5. Whenthe information reaches the target web server, the webserver then begins to send the web page back. A webserver is the com

20、puter where the webpageis stored that is running a program that handles requests for the webpage and sends the webpage to whoever wants to see it.6. The webpage is put in packets, sent through routers, and arrive at the users computer where the user can view the webpage once it is assembled.The pack

21、ets which contain the data also contain special information that lets routers and other computers know how to reassemble the data in the right order.With millions of web pages, and millions of users, using the Internet is not always easy for a beginning user, especially for someone who is not entire

22、ly comfortale with using computers. Below you can find tips tricks and help on how to use main services of the Internet.Before you access webpages, you must have a web browser to actually be able to view the webpages. Most Internet Access Providers provide you with a web browser in the software they

23、 usually give to customers; you.The fact that you are viewing this page meansthat you have a web browser. The top two use browsers are Netscape Communicator and Microsoft InternetExplorer. Netscape can be found at and MSIE can be found at The fact that you're reading this right now means that yo

24、u have a web browser.Next you must be familiar with actually using webpages. A webpageis a collection of hyperlinks, images, text, forms, menus, and multimedia.To "navigate" a webpage, simply click the links it provides or follow it's own instructions (like if it has a form you need to

25、 use, it will probably instruct you how to use it). Basically, everything about a webpageis made to be self- explanetory. That is the nature of a webpage, to be easily navigatable."Oh no! a 404 error! 'Cannot find web page?'" is a commonremark made by new web-users.Sometimes websit

26、es have errors. But an error on a website is not theuser's fault, of course.A 404 error means that the page you tried to go to does not exist. This could be because the site is still being constructed and the page hasn't been created yet, or because the site author made a typo in the page. T

27、here's nothing much to do about a 404 error except for e-mailing the site administrator (of the page you wanted to go to) an telling him/her about the error.A Javascript error is the result of a programming error in the Javascript code of a website. Not all websites utilize Javascript, but manyd

28、o. Javascript is different from Java, and most browsers nowsupport Javascript. If you are using an old version of a web browser (Netscape 3.0 for example), you might get Javascript errors because sites utilize Javascript versions that your browser does not support. So, you can try getting a newer ve

29、rsion of your web browser.E-mail stands for Electronic Mail, and that's what it is. E-mail enables people to send letters, and even files and pictures to each other.To use e-mail, you must have an e-mail client, which is just like a personal post office, since it retrieves and stores e-mail.Seco

30、ndly, you must have an e-mail account. Most Internet Service Providers provide free e-mail account(s) for free. Some services offer free e-mail, like Hotmail, and Geocities.After configuring your e-mail client with your POP3 and SMTP server address (your e-mail provider will give you that informatio

31、n), you are ready to receive mail.An attachment is a file sent in a letter. If someone sends you an attachment and you don't know whoit is, don't run the file, ever. It could be a virus or some other kind of nasty programs. You can't get a virus just by reading e-mail, you'll have to

32、 physically execute some form of program for a virus to strike.A signature is a feature of manye-mail programs. A signature is added to the end of every e-mail you send out. You can put a text graphic, your business information, anything you want.Imagine that a computer on the Internet is an island

33、in the sea. The sea is filled with millions of islands. This is the Internet. Imagine an island communicates with other island by sending ships to other islands and receiving ships. The island has ports to accept and send out ships.A computer on the Internet has access nodes called ports. A port is

34、just a symbolic object that allows the computer to operate on a network (or the Internet). This method is similar to the island/ocean symbolism above.Telnet refers to accessing ports on a server directly with a text connection. Almost every kind of Internet function, like accessing web pages,"c

35、hatting," and e-mailing is done over a Telnet connection.Telnetting requires a Telnet client. A telnet program comes with theWindowssystem, so Windowsusers can access telnet by typing in "telnet" (without the "'s) in the run dialog. Linux has it built into the command line; t

36、elnet. A popular telnet program for Macintosh is NCSA telnet.Any server software (web page daemon, chat daemon) can be accessed via telnet, although they are not usually meant to be accessed in such a manner. For instance, it is possible to connect directly to a mail server and check your mail by in

37、terfacing with the e-mail server software, but it's easier to use an e-mail client (of course).There are millions of WebPagesthat come from all over the world, yet how will you know what the address of a page you want is?Search engines save the day. A search engine is a very large website that a

38、llows you to search it's own database of websites. For instance, if you wanted to find a website on dogs, you'd search for "dog" or "dogs" or "dog information." Here are a few search-engines.1. Altavista ()- Web spider &Indexed2. Yahoo () - Web spider &

39、Indexed Collection3. Excite () - Web spider & Indexed4. Lycos () - Web spider & Indexed5. Metasearch () - Multiple searchA web spider is a program used by search engines that goes from page to page, following any link it can possibly find. This meansthat a search engine can literally mapout

40、as muchof the Internet as it's own time and speed allows for.An indexed collection uses hand-added links. For instance, on Yahoo's site. You can click on Computers & the Internet. Then you can click on Hardware. Then you can click on Modems, etc., and along the way through sections, ther

41、e are sites available which relate to what section you're in.Metasearch searches manysearch engines at the sametime, finding the top choices from about 10 search engines, making searching a lot more effective.Once you are able to use search engines, you can effectively find the pages you want.Wi

42、th the arrival of networking and multi user systems, security has always been on the mind of system developers and system operators. Since the dawn of AT&T and its phone network, hackers have been known by many, hackers who find ways all the time of breaking into systems. It used to not be that

43、big of a problem, since networking waslimited to big corporate companies or government computers who could afford the necessary computer security.The biggest problem now-a-days is personal information. Why should you be careful while making purchases via a website? Let's look at how the internet

44、 works, quickly.The user is transferring credit card information to a webpage. Looks safe, right? Not necessarily. As the user submits the information, it is being streamed through a series of computers that make up the Internet backbone. The information is in little chunks, in packages called packe

45、ts. Here's the problem: While the information is being transferred through this big backbone, what is preventing a "hacker" from intercepting this data stream at one of the backbone points?Big-brother is not watching you if you access a web site, but users should be aware of potential

46、threats while transmitting private information. There are methods of enforcing security, like password protection, an most importantly, encryption.Encryption means scrambling data into a code that can only be unscrambled on the "other end." Browser's like Netscape Communicator and Inte

47、rnet Explorer feature encryption support for making on-line transfers. Some encryptions work better than others. The most advanced encryption system is called DES (Data Encryption Standard), and it was adopted by the US Defense Department because it was deemed so difficult to 'crack' that th

48、ey considered it a security risk if it would fall into another countries hands.A DESuses a single key of information to unlock an entire document. The problem is, there are 75 trillion possible keys to use, so it is a highly difficult system to break. One document was cracked and decoded, but it was

49、 a combined effort of 14,000 computers networked over the Internet that took a while to do it, so most hackers don't have that many resources available.Internet 的歷史起源 ARPAnetInternet 是被美國(guó)政府作為一項(xiàng)工程進(jìn)行開發(fā)的。這項(xiàng)工程的目的，是為了建立遠(yuǎn)距離之間點(diǎn)與點(diǎn)的通信，以便處理國(guó)家軍事范圍內(nèi)的緊急事件，例如核戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)。這項(xiàng)工程被命名為 ARPAnet它就是Internet的前身。建立此工程的主 要應(yīng)用對(duì)象就是軍

50、事通訊，那些負(fù)責(zé)ARPAnet的工程師們當(dāng)時(shí)也沒有想到它將成 為“ Internet ”。根據(jù)定義，一個(gè)“Internet ”應(yīng)該由四或者更多的計(jì)算機(jī)連接起來的網(wǎng)絡(luò)。ARPAnet是通過一種叫TCP/IP的協(xié)議實(shí)現(xiàn)連網(wǎng)工作的。此協(xié)議最基礎(chǔ)的工作原理是：如果信息在網(wǎng)絡(luò)中的一條路徑發(fā)送失敗，那么它將找到其他路徑進(jìn)行發(fā)送，就好象建立一種語言以便一臺(tái)計(jì)算機(jī)與其他計(jì)算機(jī)“交談”一樣，但不注意它是PG 或是Macintosh 。到了 20世紀(jì)80年代，ARPAnet已經(jīng)開始變成目前更為有名的Internet 了， 它擁有200臺(tái)在線主機(jī)。國(guó)防部很滿意ARPAnets的成果，于是決定全力將它培 養(yǎng)為能夠聯(lián)系

51、很多軍事主機(jī)，資源共享的服務(wù)網(wǎng)絡(luò)。到了1984 年，它就已經(jīng)超過 1000 臺(tái)主機(jī)在線了。在1986年ARPAnet關(guān)閉了，但僅僅是建立它的機(jī)構(gòu)關(guān)閉了，而網(wǎng)絡(luò)繼續(xù)存在與超過1000臺(tái)的主機(jī)之間。由于使用NSF連接失敗，ARPAne"被關(guān)閉。NSF 是將5個(gè)國(guó)家范圍內(nèi)的超級(jí)計(jì)算機(jī)連入 ARPAnet隨著NSF的建立，新的高速的傳輸介質(zhì)被成功的使用，在 1988年，用戶能通過 56k 的電話線上網(wǎng)。在那個(gè)時(shí)候有28， 174臺(tái)主機(jī)連入Internet 。 到了 1989年有80， 000臺(tái)主機(jī)連入Internet 。到 1989 年末，就有290， 000臺(tái)主機(jī)連入了。另外還有其他網(wǎng)絡(luò)被

52、建立，并支持用戶以驚人的數(shù)量接入。于1992 年正式建立?，F(xiàn)狀 Internet如今， Internet 已經(jīng)成為人類歷史上最先進(jìn)技術(shù)的一種。每個(gè)人都想“上網(wǎng)”去體驗(yàn)一下 Internet 中的信息財(cái)富。成千上百的人都用Internet 。預(yù)計(jì)，到了 2003 年世界上的每個(gè)人，都將擁有Internet 接入。 Internet 已經(jīng)真正成為我們這個(gè)年代生活的一部分。由于計(jì)算機(jī)技術(shù)和網(wǎng)絡(luò)技術(shù)每天都在改變，我們很難想象Internet 下一步將發(fā)展成什么樣子。工作原理：現(xiàn)在，人們用Internet 是一件很平常的事。他們通過Internet 進(jìn)行購物、玩游戲、聊天等娛樂活動(dòng)。Internet 不

53、僅僅是一件事物。Internet 也會(huì)崩潰。它的工作原理如同電話通信系統(tǒng)，只不過沒有專門的Internet 公司來經(jīng)營(yíng)Internet 。Internet 是成千上萬臺(tái)計(jì)算機(jī)互相連接的集合。Internet 就像是辦公網(wǎng)絡(luò)一樣，不同的是，它有成千上萬臺(tái)計(jì)算機(jī)相連接。其中最主要的是Internet 是如何進(jìn)行通信的。位于Houston 的一臺(tái)計(jì)算機(jī)是如何通過瀏覽網(wǎng)頁而能與位于Tokyo 的計(jì)算機(jī)進(jìn)行數(shù)據(jù)通信的呢？Internet 信息，擁有信息的計(jì)算機(jī)連接到Internet ，是基于語言。這種語言叫做TCP/IP。 TCP/IP 建立了一種語言，能使計(jì)算機(jī)在Internet 系統(tǒng)中傳送數(shù) 據(jù)。但

54、是 TCP/IP 的取得也必須具備兩臺(tái)電腦之間的物理連接。當(dāng)然也未必都是這樣。但也必須存在一根網(wǎng)絡(luò)線將主機(jī)與Internet 連接起來，但做到這樣，還是不可能與Internet 連接的。物理連接要求通過 MODEM電話線和其他類似 MODEM連接（如DSL來建 立。計(jì)算機(jī)上的MODEM過已建立的通信線進(jìn)行收發(fā)數(shù)據(jù)， 通信線可以是電話線 或是數(shù)據(jù)線。事實(shí)上計(jì)算機(jī)之間建立連接的硬核被成為路由器。路由器就是計(jì)算機(jī)中進(jìn)行信息交互的管理器。為了更好的對(duì)它說明，讓我們來看看一臺(tái)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的計(jì)算機(jī)是怎樣瀏覽網(wǎng)頁的？1、 用戶計(jì)算機(jī)撥號(hào)進(jìn)入ISP。 而此 ISP 可能還要連接入其他ISP， 或是直接進(jìn)入 Inter

55、net 主干。2、用戶打開網(wǎng)頁瀏覽器如 NETSCAP或是IE。3、 接下來是進(jìn)入Internet 的棘手部分。首先， 用戶計(jì)算機(jī)相路由器發(fā)出請(qǐng)求。 路由器是一種高速高效的計(jì)算機(jī)運(yùn)行的專門軟件。世界上所有路由的連接便形成了 Internet 的主干， 在這里傳送Internet 上的所有數(shù)據(jù)。目前主干網(wǎng)上的處理速度為每秒幾千兆字節(jié)。這樣的速度分配到一只MODEM,就好比太陽光的熱量分配到一塊冰上的熱量一樣。4、路由器發(fā)送或接受數(shù)據(jù)。它將一小段數(shù)據(jù)分別打包，形成數(shù)據(jù)報(bào)，就像包裹一樣。因此，當(dāng)請(qǐng)求網(wǎng)頁瀏覽是，就用TCP/IP 協(xié)議告訴路由器如何處理這些數(shù)據(jù)，將這些數(shù)據(jù)發(fā)送去哪里，用戶主要想去哪里。

56、5、路由器將這些數(shù)據(jù)報(bào)發(fā)送給其他的路由器，最終轉(zhuǎn)到目標(biāo)主機(jī)上。就像傳耳語的游戲一樣（當(dāng)然，只有完整的信息才能被傳送）。6、當(dāng)信息到達(dá)目標(biāo)網(wǎng)頁的服務(wù)器是，服務(wù)器就開始將網(wǎng)頁信息發(fā)送回去。一臺(tái)網(wǎng)頁服務(wù)器，就是網(wǎng)頁存儲(chǔ)所在的計(jì)算機(jī)，它能對(duì)網(wǎng)頁進(jìn)行編輯，并將它發(fā)送給用戶。網(wǎng)頁被分成數(shù)據(jù)報(bào)，通過路由器，最終到達(dá)用戶計(jì)算機(jī)，這樣，用戶就能瀏覽網(wǎng)頁了。數(shù)據(jù)報(bào)中含有相關(guān)的數(shù)據(jù)以及一些必須的信息讓路由器或其他計(jì)算機(jī)知道如何將數(shù)據(jù)報(bào)按正確的順序重新組裝成原始的數(shù)據(jù)段。有了成千上萬的網(wǎng)頁和成千上萬的用戶，對(duì)于初學(xué)者來說使用Internet 將不再那么容易，尤其是那些不太精通電腦的人。接下來， 你將能找到一些上網(wǎng)的小

57、技巧和使用Internet 主要服務(wù)的幫助。在你打開網(wǎng)頁之前，你必須有一個(gè)網(wǎng)頁瀏覽器用于瀏覽網(wǎng)頁。大部分網(wǎng)絡(luò)服務(wù)商都會(huì)給用戶提供一個(gè)網(wǎng)絡(luò)瀏覽器。當(dāng)你在瀏覽網(wǎng)頁時(shí)，其實(shí)就是在使用瀏覽器。 目前使用最廣泛的網(wǎng)頁瀏覽器是Netscape 和 MSIE。 Netscape 能自動(dòng)連接到 , MSIE能自動(dòng)連接 。接下來你就必須熟悉如何使用網(wǎng)頁。網(wǎng)頁是超鏈接、圖片、文本、表格、按鈕以及多媒體的集合。只需點(diǎn)擊網(wǎng)頁提供的連接或是按照網(wǎng)頁的步驟（比如， 如果你需要用網(wǎng)頁中的一張表，旁邊就會(huì)有使用這張表的幫助）做， 你就可以進(jìn)行網(wǎng)上沖浪了。基本上，網(wǎng)頁中的每個(gè)元素都可以自我移植?！芭叮?！又是 404 出錯(cuò)！

58、不能找到相關(guān)網(wǎng)頁 ”這是上網(wǎng)初學(xué)者中很普通的言論。有時(shí)網(wǎng)站也會(huì)出錯(cuò)。當(dāng)然網(wǎng)站的錯(cuò)誤跟用戶的操作沒有關(guān)系。404 出錯(cuò)意思是你想找的那個(gè)網(wǎng)頁不存在。這有可能是因?yàn)榫W(wǎng)站仍在建設(shè)中， 頁面還沒有被創(chuàng)建，或者是因?yàn)榫W(wǎng)站的制作者正在對(duì)頁面進(jìn)行修改。當(dāng)出現(xiàn)404 出錯(cuò)時(shí)，除了對(duì)網(wǎng)站管理發(fā)電子郵件，告訴他/ 她關(guān)于出錯(cuò)的問題，就別無他法了。Javascript 出錯(cuò)是由于網(wǎng)站中的Javascript 的程序代碼出錯(cuò)造成的。并非所有的網(wǎng)頁都使用Javascript ， 但有很多是用Javascript 的。 Javascript 不同于JAVA目前大部分瀏覽器都支持 Javascript。如果你現(xiàn)在用的是舊版的網(wǎng)頁瀏覽器，那么就有可能出現(xiàn)Javascript 出錯(cuò)，那是因?yàn)槟愕臑g覽器的版本低于站點(diǎn)使用的Javascript 版本。所以，你應(yīng)該為你的瀏覽器升級(jí)到新的版本。電子郵件即電子方式的郵件。電子郵件能使人們互相收發(fā)信件