參考說(shuō)明教案tpo

1、tpo1PASSAGE No.1英文文本：GroundwaterGroundwater is the word used to describe water that saturates the ground, filling all theavailable spaces. By far the most abundant type of groundwater is meteoric water; this is the groundwater that circulates as part of the water cycle. Ordinary meteoric water is wa

2、ter that has soaked into the ground from the surface, from precipitation (rain and snow) and from lakes and streams. There it remains, sometimes for long periods, before emerging at the surface again. At first thought it seems incredible that there can be enough space in the “solid” ground underfoot

3、 to hold all this water.The necessary space is there, however, in many forms. The commonest spaces are thoseamong the particlessand grains and tiny pebblesof loose, unconsolidated sand and gravel. Beds of this material, out of sight beneath the soil, are common. They are found wherever fast rivers c

4、arrying loads of coarse sediment once flowed. For example, as the great ice sheets that covered North America during the last ice age steadily melted away, huge volumes of water flowed from them. The water was always laden with pebbles, gravel, and sand, known as glacial outwash, that was deposited

5、as the flow slowed down.The same thing happens to this day, though on a smaller scale, wherever a sediment-laden river or stream emerges from a mountain valley onto relatively flat land, dropping its load as the current slows: the water usually spreads out fanwise, depositing the sediment in the for

6、m of a smooth, fan-shaped slope. Sediments are also dropped where a river slows on entering a lake or the sea, the deposited sediments are on a lake floor or the seafloor at first, but will be located inland at some future date, when the sea level falls or the land rises; such beds are sometimes tho

7、usands of meters thick.In lowland country almost any spot on the ground may overlie what was once the bed ofa river that has sincee buried by soil; if they are now below the waters uppersurface (the water table), the gravels and sands of the former riverbed, and its sandbars,will be saturated with g

8、roundwater.So much for unconsolidated sediments. Consolidated (or cemented) sediments, too,contain millions of minute water-holding pores. This is because the gaps among the original grains are often not totally plugged with cementing chemicals; also, parts of theoriginal grains maye dissolved by pe

9、rcolating groundwater, either whileconsolidation is taking place or at any time afterwards. The result is that sandstone, forexample, can be as porous as the loose sand from which it was formed.14008-116-269Thus a proportion of the total volume of any sediment, loose or cemented, consists ofempty sp

10、ace. Most crystalline rocks are much more solid; a common exception is basalt, a form of solidified volcanic lava, which is sometimes full of tiny bubbles that make it very porous.The proportion of empty space in a rock is known as its porosity. But note that porosityis not the same as permeability,

11、 which measures the ease with which water can flow through a material; this depends on the sizes of the individual cavities and the crevices linking them.Much of the water in a sample of water-saturated sediment or rock will drain from it ifthe sample is put in a suitable dry place. But some will re

12、main, clinging to all solid surfaces. It is held there by the force of surface tension without which water would drain instantly from any wet surface, leaving it totally dry. The total volume of water in the saturated sample must therefore be thought of as consisting of water that can, and water tha

13、t cannot, drain away.The relative amount of these two kinds of water varies greatly from one kind of rock orsediment to another, even though their porosities may be the same. What happens depends on pore size. If the pores are large, the water in them will exist as drops too heavy for surface tensio

14、n to hold, and it will drain away; but if the pores are smallenough, the water in them will exist as thin films, too light tosurface tension holding them in place; then the water will be firmly held.e the force of中文文本：水水是指滲入到并將所有巖石孔隙填滿的水。到現(xiàn)在為止，大氣水是最豐富的水，是水循環(huán)中的一個(gè)環(huán)節(jié)。普通的大氣從地表、降水以及湖泊河流侵入到。在再次冒出地表之前，這些地下

15、水有時(shí)會(huì)長(zhǎng)時(shí)間留在儲(chǔ)存這么些水。最初讓人覺(jué)得難以置信的是，在我們腳下“堅(jiān)實(shí)的”土地中竟然有足夠的空間能然而，水所需的儲(chǔ)存空間多種多樣。松散的砂子和礫石間有許多顆粒，如沙粒和小石子，它們之間的孔隙是最常見(jiàn)的儲(chǔ)存水的空間。由這些顆粒組成的水床非常普遍，通常位于看不見(jiàn)的土壤下方，在攜帶粗糙沉淀物的湍急的河流曾流過(guò)的地方都能找到它們的蹤跡。比如，冰河覆蓋的巨大冰層逐漸融化，大量水從那兒流出。水里總會(huì)攜帶些石子、礫石和沙石，這些顆粒會(huì)隨著水流的水沉積。而沉淀，這就是所謂冰河期的冰現(xiàn)代也有冰水沉積，盡管規(guī)模相對(duì)較小。凡是有攜帶沙石的河流或者溪流從山谷流至相對(duì)平坦的地面時(shí)，砂石就隨著水流速度的減慢逐漸沉淀；

16、水流通常呈扇形擴(kuò)散，它們所攜帶的沙石也會(huì)沉淀為光滑的扇形斜面。當(dāng)河24008-116-269流匯入湖泊和海洋的時(shí)候也會(huì)有沉淀，這些沉淀最初在湖底或海底，但將來(lái)海平面下降或者陸地崛起時(shí)，它們就會(huì)分布于內(nèi)陸，通常厚達(dá)幾千米。低地區(qū)域上的任何位置可能就是曾經(jīng)的河床，后續(xù)被土壤覆蓋而變成現(xiàn)在的樣子。如果那些過(guò)去的河床和沙洲現(xiàn)在位于水位之下，一定會(huì)有大量的水浸在它們的沙子和礫石之間。以上說(shuō)的都是松散的沉積物，那些堅(jiān)固的沉積物，也擁有以數(shù)萬(wàn)計(jì)的毛細(xì)孔來(lái)容納水。因?yàn)樽畛躅w粒間的縫隙通常并未完全被黏固的化學(xué)物質(zhì)塞滿，而且部分顆粒很可能在砂巖最終變得和形成它的散沙一樣多孔。時(shí)或后被滲入的水溶解；結(jié)果這些因此，不

17、管沉積物是疏松還是堅(jiān)固，它們中一定有空間。大部分結(jié)晶體巖石都非常堅(jiān)硬，但也有例外，最常見(jiàn)的就是玄武巖，它是一種的火山熔巖，經(jīng)常充滿了微小氣泡，從而變得十分多孔。巖石的孔隙度就是指其中空間的比例。但需要注意的是，孔隙度與滲透率是不同的。滲透率衡量的是水滲透物質(zhì)的難易程度，它取決于與單個(gè)空隙以及連接孔隙間裂縫的大小。當(dāng)充滿水分的沉淀物或者巖石樣本被放置在適宜的干燥環(huán)境中時(shí)，大部分的水分會(huì)流失，但仍有部分繼續(xù)附著在堅(jiān)實(shí)的表面上。要不是因?yàn)楸砻鎻埩?，這些水分也會(huì)立刻蒸發(fā)，僅留下完全干燥的樣本。因此，試驗(yàn)樣本的含水量既包括可以流干的水，也包括不能流干的水。這兩種水的相對(duì)含量因巖石或沉積物種類(lèi)不同而改變，

18、即便它們有相同比例的孔隙，還取決于孔隙的大小。如果孔隙很大，其中的形成水滴，太重足以克服吸引它的表面張力，就會(huì)流走；但如果孔隙夠小，像薄膜一樣，太輕無(wú)法克服表面張力，從而穩(wěn)穩(wěn)地附著在孔隙表面上。題目 1<推斷題>Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 1 about the ground that we walk on?選項(xiàng)：A. It cannot hold rainwater for long periods of time.B. It prevents most groundwater from circul

19、ating.C. It has the capacity to store large amounts of water.D. It absorbs most of the water it contains from rivers.正確選項(xiàng)：C.It has the capacity to store large amounts of water.：?jiǎn)枏牡谝欢慰梢酝茢喑鲫P(guān)于我們行走著的地面的哪一項(xiàng)，通過(guò) inferred 知道這是一道推斷題。首先通過(guò)ground that we walk on到最后一行 ground underfoot 腳下的地面，underfoot 是對(duì) walk on

20、的同34008-116-269意轉(zhuǎn)換，這句說(shuō)地面 incredible to hold all this water，所以現(xiàn)在去找與關(guān)鍵信息地面能hold water 一致的選項(xiàng)，A 它沒(méi)辦法長(zhǎng)時(shí)間儲(chǔ)存雨水；B 它水循環(huán)；C 它有儲(chǔ)存大量水的能力；D 它吸收了很多它包含的來(lái)自于河流的水。C 項(xiàng)中的 store large amounts water 對(duì)應(yīng)著選C； ABD 中的關(guān)鍵信息rainwater，circulating 和rivers 都不是句中的 hold all this water，所以本題句的關(guān)鍵信息，所以不能選。題目 2<詞匯題>The word incredibl

21、e in the passage is closest in meaning to選項(xiàng)：A.confusingforting C.unbelievable D.interesting正確選項(xiàng)：C.unbelievable：incredible 不可思議的，選 C，unbelievable 難以置信的，in-和 un-都是前綴，表示“不”。Aconfusing的，令人困惑的；B comforting 安慰的；D interesting 有趣的。題目 3<詞匯題>The word out of sightin the passage is closest in meaning to選項(xiàng)

22、：A.far away B.hidden C.partly visible D.discovered正確選項(xiàng)：B.hidden：out of sight 視野之外的，sight 視線，視野，選B，hidden 隱藏的，就是看不見(jiàn)的。A far away 遠(yuǎn)處的；C partly visible 部分可見(jiàn)的，visible 可視的，可見(jiàn)的，來(lái)自于名詞vision 視野；D discovered 探索，發(fā)現(xiàn)。題目 4<細(xì)節(jié)題>44008-116-269According to paragraph 2, where is groundwater usually found?選項(xiàng)：A. I

23、nside pieces of sand and gravelB. On top of beds of rockC. In fast rivers that are flowing beneath the soilD. In spaces between pieces of sediment正確選項(xiàng)：D.In spaces between pieces of sediment：水經(jīng)常在哪里被發(fā)現(xiàn)。細(xì)節(jié)題，由于 groundwater 是這篇文章主題， 全文都有出現(xiàn)，本題通過(guò)問(wèn)usually found到第二句話the commonest spaces，最常見(jiàn)的地方是在微粒之間，破折號(hào)之后的砂礫

24、石是對(duì) particles 的解釋。A 在砂礫石內(nèi)部；B 在巖層之上；C 在土壤以下快速的河流中；D 在沉積物微粒之間的空隙中；本題選 D，the spaces between 對(duì)應(yīng)原文的 spaces among， pieces of sediments 對(duì)應(yīng)particles。本題乍一看選項(xiàng) A 中的 sand and gravel 直接與原文對(duì)應(yīng)，但是注意原文說(shuō)的是在砂礫石之間的空隙中，among 和 inside 是完全不同的概念，所以 A 不能選；C 對(duì)應(yīng)的是文中后面 beds of this materials的地點(diǎn)，不在句，也與groundwater 無(wú)關(guān)。題目 5<指代題

25、>The phrase glacial outwash in the passage refers to選項(xiàng)：A.fast rivers B.glaciersC.the huge volumes of water created by glacial meltingD.the particles carried in water from melting glaciers正確選項(xiàng)：D.the particles carried in water from melting glaciers：?jiǎn)枴癵lacial outwash”指的是什么。指代題，回原文最后一句找到 glacial outw

26、ash，它前面出現(xiàn) known as被稱(chēng)作，因此我們要找的就在前半句，水充滿 pebbles, gravel, and sand，這些其實(shí)就是上一題剛剛出現(xiàn)的particles，所以本題選D，冰川消融的水負(fù)載微粒。A 快速河流；B 冰川；C 冰川消融產(chǎn)生的大量的水； 這里C 只說(shuō)了水，沒(méi)有提及微粒，所以錯(cuò)。題目 6<選非題>54008-116-269All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 3 as places that sediment-laden riverscan deposit their sediments EXCE

27、PT選項(xiàng)：A.A mountain valley B.Flat landC.A lake floor D.The seafloor正確選項(xiàng)：A.A mountain valley：?jiǎn)栆韵赂黜?xiàng)都是沉積負(fù)載河流沉淀沉積物的地方， 除了哪一個(gè)。EXCEPT 表示這是選非題， 首先通過(guò)sediment-laden rivers到第二行，這里說(shuō)這些河流從山谷出現(xiàn)，流到平地，沉淀它們的沉積物當(dāng)水流變緩的時(shí)候，這里的dropping load 是對(duì) deposit sediments 的同義替換，所以 flat land 必然是沉積地點(diǎn)；同時(shí)這句話里的 mountain valley 和 flat land

28、 形成對(duì)比，一個(gè)是出現(xiàn)一個(gè)是沉積，出現(xiàn)的地方不可能沉積，所以本題選 A 山谷。為了確認(rèn)一下，可以找一下 CD 的 lake floor 和 seafloor，倒數(shù)第三行，它們是通過(guò)or 連接并列出現(xiàn)，看到or 就知道肯定不能選，因?yàn)樗鼈兊匚幌嗤?，如果?duì)兩個(gè)必然兩個(gè)都不對(duì)，這句話也確實(shí)在說(shuō)沉積一開(kāi)始就在湖底或海底。，但是這是單選題，所以題目 7<詞匯題>The word overlie in the passage is closest in meaning to選項(xiàng)：A.cover B.change C.separate D.surround正確選項(xiàng)：A.cover：overlie

29、 躺在上面，覆蓋在上面，over 表示在之上，lie 躺，位于，本題選 A cover 覆蓋。B change 改變；C separate，單獨(dú)的；surround。題目 8<詞匯題>The phrase So much for in the passage is closest in meaning to64008-116-269選項(xiàng)：A. that is enough aboutB. now let us turn toC. of greater concern areD. this is related to正確選項(xiàng)：A.that is enough about：so muc

30、h for 到此為止，僅僅就這么多，本題選 A，關(guān)于已經(jīng)足夠了，就說(shuō)這么多。B 現(xiàn)在我們轉(zhuǎn)移到； C 更重要的是；D 這與有關(guān)。原文說(shuō)的是關(guān)于松散沉積物就說(shuō)這么多了，后面確實(shí)有轉(zhuǎn)移話題，但是這句本身沒(méi)有轉(zhuǎn)移，所以不要推斷，詞匯題就選本身的意思，BC 肯定不能選。題目 9<詞匯題>The word plugged in the passage is closest in meaning to選項(xiàng)：A.washed B.dragged C.filled upD.soaked through正確選項(xiàng)：C.filled up：plug，塞住，塞滿，本題選 C 裝滿。A wash 洗，沖刷；

31、B drag 拖拽；D soak through 滲入，濕透。如果完全不認(rèn)識(shí) plug，看原文，那句說(shuō)有 gaps 空隙，后面說(shuō)沒(méi)完全被化學(xué)物質(zhì)怎么樣，有空隙當(dāng)然是沒(méi)被裝滿，也可以選出C。題目 10<細(xì)節(jié)題>According to paragraphs 6 and 7, why is basalt unlike most crystalline forms of rock?選項(xiàng)：A. It is unusually solid.B. It often has high porosity.74008-116-269C.It has a low proportion of empty

32、 space.D.It is highly permeable.正確選項(xiàng)：B.It often has high porosity.：?jiǎn)柛鶕?jù)六、七兩段，為什么 basalt 玄武巖不像大多數(shù)晶形巖石。細(xì)節(jié)題，通過(guò) basalt 和 most crystallineforms of rock到第六段第二句，許多晶形巖堅(jiān)硬，玄武巖是個(gè)例外，這里的exception 就對(duì)應(yīng)著題干中的unlike，所以具體的不像的點(diǎn)就在后半句，a form of是basalt 的同位語(yǔ)，后面的which 從句也是對(duì)basalt 的解釋?zhuān)f(shuō)它是一種巖漿，有很多小氣泡使它很多孔，所以我們要找的關(guān)鍵點(diǎn)就是 bubbles和

33、porous，本題選B，它經(jīng)常有高孔隙率，porosity 是 porous 的名詞形式，它們共同的來(lái)源是 pore 孔。A它異常堅(jiān)硬，這是晶形巖石的特點(diǎn)，basalt 是例外；C 它空隙率低，不對(duì)；D 它是可以高度滲透的， 有出現(xiàn)滲透的問(wèn)題，同時(shí)通過(guò)后文可以知道permeable 不等于porous。句沒(méi)題目 11<段落功能題>What is the main purpose of paragraph 7?選項(xiàng)：A. To explain why water can flow through rockB. To emphasize the large amount of empt

34、y space in all rockC. To point out that a rock cannot be both porous and permeableD. To distinguish between two related properties of rock正確選項(xiàng)：D.To distinguish between two related properties of rock：?jiǎn)柕谄叨蔚闹饕康氖鞘裁?。段落功能題，一般這類(lèi)題目是先看段首句，但是本題鑒于第七段非常短，就整體看一下，首句通過(guò) known as 知道這里就是解釋了一下什porosity 孔隙率，第二句，but 轉(zhuǎn)折

35、表示對(duì)比關(guān)系，后面說(shuō) porosity 和 permeability 滲透性不一樣，permeability 后面的 which 定語(yǔ)從句是對(duì)它的解釋?zhuān)吹竭@里就可以知道這段具體解釋了 po 和 pe 的不同，所以本題選 D，區(qū)分巖石的兩種相關(guān)的屬性， two related properties 就是 po 和pe。A 解釋為什么水可以從巖石中流過(guò)，本段沒(méi)說(shuō)；B 強(qiáng)調(diào)所有巖石中的大量空間，這里強(qiáng)調(diào)的數(shù)量在文中也沒(méi)說(shuō)；C 指出巖石不能既多孔又有滲透性，確實(shí)出現(xiàn)了 po 和 pe，但是原文只是單純的解釋了這兩個(gè)東西，沒(méi)說(shuō)巖石會(huì)怎樣，所以C 肯定也不對(duì)。題目 12<句子簡(jiǎn)化題>8400

36、8-116-269Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in thehighlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.選項(xiàng)：A. Surface tension is not strong enough to retain drops of water in rocks with large

37、pores but it strong enough to hold on to thin films of water in rocks with small pores.B. Water in rocks is held in place by large pores and drains away from small size pores through surface tension.C. Small pores and large pores both interact with surface tension to determine whether a rock will ho

38、ld water as heavy drops or as a thin film.D. If the force of surface tension is too weak to hold water in place as heavy drops, the water will continue to be held firmly in place as a thin film when large pores exist.正確選項(xiàng)：A.Surface tension is not strong enough to retain drops of water in rocks with

39、large pores but it strong enough to hold on to thin films of water in rocks with small pores.：先看原句，第一個(gè)分號(hào)之后的 but 表示轉(zhuǎn)折將句意分為兩層，兩層都以 if 開(kāi)始，表示條件，所以是兩種條件下的對(duì)比，這個(gè)時(shí)候就可以到選項(xiàng)中看一下，只有 A 有 but 轉(zhuǎn)折，B 中的 and 表示并列，C both 表示都，D 只有一個(gè) if 條件句，且沒(méi)有轉(zhuǎn)折，所以這題只通過(guò)邏輯關(guān)系就可以選出 A。具體看一下這幾個(gè)句子，原句說(shuō)如果，其中的水滴就會(huì)很重以至于地表張力無(wú)法 hold 住，走；但是如果孔足夠小，其

40、中的水就會(huì)以薄膜的形式存在，地表張力足夠?qū)⑺鼈?hold 在原處，從而水被牢牢 hold 住。簡(jiǎn)單來(lái)說(shuō)就是水流走，孔小水留住。A 說(shuō)地表張力不夠強(qiáng)大去保留大的水，但是足夠強(qiáng)大去 hold 住小以薄膜形式存在的水，雖然省去了 if 條件，但是與原句的意思完全一致，retain 是對(duì) hold 的同義替換。B 說(shuō)大的被hold 在原處，這就已經(jīng)說(shuō)反了，后面都不用看了；C 大小和地表張力相互作用以決定巖石以或薄膜的形式 hold 住水，看到 both 不是對(duì)比關(guān)系就知道肯定錯(cuò)，而且原句中大孔是 hold 不住水的；D 如果地表張力太小以至于 hold 不住，水仍然會(huì)以薄膜形式被 hold 在原處當(dāng)大

41、孔存在的時(shí)候，還是在說(shuō)大hold 住水，而且這句沒(méi)說(shuō)小孔，所以不對(duì)。題目 13<句子題>Look at the four squares that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.Where would the sentence best fit?What, then, determines what proportion of the water stays and what proportion drains away?選項(xiàng)：A.1B.2C.3D.494008-116-269

42、正確選項(xiàng)：D：先看句子，那么什么決定了留下的流走的水的比例？本句中的邏輯詞 then 不便用于；通過(guò) then 和what determines 知道前文肯定有提及這句的主題，即留下的流走的水的比例，所以回原文找 waterstays 和 drains away，發(fā)現(xiàn)第二空之前兩句話，一句說(shuō)會(huì) drain，一句說(shuō)會(huì) remain，這里好像就可以句子了，但是注意第二空之后的It，指代前文的 some 和前文緊密，句子不可以破壞原文已有的銜接，所以這里不能插，只能接著往下看，第三空之前只是 drain，第四空之前的 water can and cannot drain away 就是同時(shí)提及了流走

43、和留下的水，而且下一段開(kāi)頭的 the relative amount of these two kinds of water 就是開(kāi)始說(shuō)水的比例問(wèn)題了，因此這題選第四空。題目 14<文章小結(jié)題>Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the pa

44、ssage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.Much of the ground is actually saturated with water.選項(xiàng)：A. Sediments that hold water were spread by glaciers and are s

45、till spread by rivers and streams.B. Water is stored underground in beds of loose sand and gravel or in cemented sediment.C. The size of a saturated rocks pores determines how much water it will retain when the rock is put in a dry place.D. Groundwater often remains underground for a long time befor

46、e it emerges again. E.Like sandstone, basalt is a crystalline rock that is very porous.F.Beds of unconsolidated sediments are typically located at inland sites that were once underwater.正確選項(xiàng)：A. Sediments that hold water were spread by glaciers and are still spread by rivers and streams.B. Water is s

47、tored underground in beds of loose sand and gravel or in cemented sediment.C. The size of a saturated rocks pores determines how much water it will retain when the rock is put in a dry place.104008-116-269：本題首先通過(guò)標(biāo)題 Groundwater 和題目中的總起句，很多的地面實(shí)際上充滿水，可以知道正確的選項(xiàng)一定是跟地面儲(chǔ)存水相關(guān)；接下來(lái)看選項(xiàng)，A 沉積物儲(chǔ)存水，曾經(jīng)由冰川現(xiàn)在由河流的水，是說(shuō)

48、沉積物里，沒(méi)問(wèn)題；B 水被儲(chǔ)存，在疏松的砂礫石層或者在緊實(shí)沉積物中，也是哪兒，沒(méi)問(wèn)題；C 巖石中的孔的大小決定多少被留住當(dāng)它被放在一個(gè)干的地方，這是我們做第六、七兩段的題目的時(shí)候已經(jīng)看到的這兩段的主要意思，也沒(méi)問(wèn)題。D 通過(guò) groundwater 可以到第一段最后的位置，文中用的是sometimes 和選項(xiàng)中的 often 不是一個(gè)概念，所以不能選；E 像砂石一樣，玄武巖是一種多孔的晶形巖石，原文中 basalt 只是個(gè)細(xì)節(jié)，肯定不能選；F 疏松沉積層典型的存在于曾經(jīng)在水下的內(nèi)陸地點(diǎn)，拿 Beds of unconsolidatedsediments原文很不好找，located at inl

49、and site 可以在第三段中找到，這里也是個(gè)細(xì)節(jié)，而且主語(yǔ)疏松巖石層跟地面儲(chǔ)存水沒(méi)有關(guān)系，所以不選。114008-116-269PASSAGE No.2英文文本：The Origins of TheaterIn seeking to describe the origins of theater, one must rely primarily on speculation,since there is little concrete evidence on which to draw. The most widely accepted theory, championed by anth

50、ropologists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, envisions theater as emerging out of myth and ritual. The process perceived by these anthropologists may be summarized briefly. During the early stages of itsdevelopment, a societyes aware of forces that appear to influence or control

51、 itsfood supply and well-being. Having little understanding of natural causes, it attributesboth desirable and undesirable occurrences to supernatural or magical forces, and it searches for means to win the favor of these forces. Perceiving an apparent connection between certain actions performed by

52、 the group and the result it desires, the group repeats, refines and formalizes those actions into fixed ceremonies, or rituals.Stories (myths) may then grow up around a ritual. Frequently the myths includerepresentatives of those supernatural forces that the rites celebrate or hope to influence. Pe

53、rformers may wear costumes and masks to represent the mythicalcharacters or supernatural forces in the rituals or inpanying celebrations. As aes more sophisticated, its conceptions of supernatural forces and causalrelationships may change. As a result, it may abandon or modify some rites. But the my

54、ths that have grown up around the rites may continue as part of the groups oral tradition and may even come to be acted out under conditions divorced from these rites. When this occurs, the first step has been taken toward theater as an autonomous activity, and thereafter entertainment and aesthetic

55、 values may gradually replace the former mystical and socially efficacious concerns.Although origin in ritual has long been the most popular, it is by no means the onlytheory about how the theater came into being. Storytelling has been proposed as one alternative. Under this theory, relating and lis

56、tening to stories are seen as fundamental human pleasures. Thus, the recalling of an event (a hunt, battle, or other feat) iselaborated through the narrators pantomime and imation and eventuallythrough each role being assumed by a different.A closely related theory sees theater as evolving out of da

57、nces that are primarilypantomimic, rhythmical or gymnastic, or from imitations of animal noises and sounds. Admiration for the performers skill, virtuosity, and grace are seen as motivation for elaborating the activities into fully realized theatrical performances.In addition to exploring the possible antecedents of theater, scholars have alsotheorized about the motives that led people to develop theater. Why did theater124008-116-269develop, and why was it valu