舉例、列舉、分類課件(2)

1、How to organize one paragraph?1. topic sentence2. supporting sentences3. concluding sentence/closing sentenceHave a brief review例證法/舉例法(example)列舉法(details)分類法(development by classification)How to develop paragraphs?因果分析法(cause and effect)對比-對照法(comparison and contrast)Objectives:1. 例證法/舉例法 舉例法是段落擴展

2、最常用的方法，幾乎所有的“主題”都可以用舉例法來論證。因此， 舉例法也經(jīng)常與其他段落擴展方法同時使用。它主要是通過舉例、列舉事實來說明主題，從而使文章顯得言之有物，具有說服力。 例如 It Pays to Be Honest 一文第2段 However, there are lots of people who try to get benefits by dishonest means. For example, many students copy the papers written by others or cheat at examinations in order to get h

3、igher marks. The same thing may be said of some producers who try to get rich by making fake and poor products. Those people may succeed for a time, but sooner or later, they will get nothing but troubles. 其中信號詞 For example 和 The same thing may be said of 提示本段舉了兩個例子(學生和生產(chǎn)商)來說明主題句 there are lots of p

4、eople who try to get benefits by dishonest means。Useful expressions:1. 獲得利益2. 采取不正當手段3. 抄襲別人試卷4. 考試作弊5. 同樣的事情也適用于6. 制造假冒偽劣產(chǎn)品get/ gain benefitsby dishonest meanscopy papers written by otherscheat at examinationsthe same thing may be said of+N/N-Phrasemake fake and poor products 例證法/舉例法（tips） 采用舉例法擴展段

5、落，最關鍵的問題是如何選擇典型的例證。學生作文中普遍存在的問題，就是不會選取恰當?shù)睦C。一般作文命題都是關于日常生活或人們普遍關心的社會問題，學生應該多觀察生活，多思考一些普遍的社會問題，這樣在選取例證時，就可以信手拈來，而不會抓耳撓腮，覺得無例可用。 下面語段的選例就十分精當。 Women can work as well as men in many fields. For example, many female scientists have greatly contributed to the development of human civilization. Most impor

6、tant of all, they have made such achievements while working as wives and mothers. In this case, they are more successful and respectable because they have to take on too much pressure in society and in family. 上述“主題句”指出，婦女在許多領域可以做得跟男人一樣好。要論證這一觀點，最有說服力的方法就是選取典型例證。本段選擇了女科學家作為典型代表，而且進一步指出，她們取得與男科學家同樣的成

7、就是要付出更大的代價的。 例證法也是運用客觀事實、統(tǒng)計數(shù)字、實驗結果、圖表等作論據(jù)證明論點的一種論證方法。具體地說，它通過對一些個別事例的分析和研究，歸納它們的共同屬性，綜合它們的共同本質和規(guī)律，從而得出一個帶有普遍性的結論。盡量找最能體現(xiàn)觀點的例子，具體點，微觀點，給人說服力。 吸煙的弊端 There is little doubt that smoking tobacco is extremely harmful to the smokers health. In the US, for example, research by the American Cancer Society su

8、ggests that tobacco causes up to 400,000 deaths each year - more than AIDS, alcohol, drug abuse, car crashes, murders, suicides, and fires combined. （毫無疑問，吸煙對吸煙者的健康構成嚴重威脅。例如，在美國，美國癌癥協(xié)會的研究顯示，煙草每年導致的死亡高達400，000-比艾滋病、酗酒、濫用藥物、車禍、謀殺、自殺和火災造成的死亡人數(shù)還多。）統(tǒng)計數(shù)字禁煙 To start with, smoking endangers peoples health.

9、As we all know, tobacco contains many toxic substances such as nicotine and tar. That is to say, if you are a heavy smoker, you are more likely to suffer from chronic diseases. For example, you may cough, have a sore throat or experience eye irritation. Medical research has already proved that smoki

10、ng may cause some respiratory problems. 實驗結果 To be more precise, smokers may develop lung cancer. Statistics show that the incidence of smoking-related conditions has increased sharply over the past five years.（首先，吸煙危害人們健康。正如我們所知，煙草中含有許多有毒物質，如尼古丁和焦油。也就是說，如果你是個煙鬼，你更可能患上一些慢性疾病。例如，你可能會咳嗽，咽喉腫痛或者眼睛不適。醫(yī)學研

11、究已經(jīng)證實，吸煙容易導致一些呼吸道疾病。說得具體一些，吸煙者可能得肺癌。數(shù)據(jù)表明，在過去五年里，與吸煙相關的疾病發(fā)病率急劇上升。）1. 首先2. 正如我們所知3. 有毒物質4. 尼古丁5. 焦油6. 也就是說7. 患上慢性疾病8. 咽喉腫痛9. 眼睛不適10. 導致呼吸道疾病11.說得具體一些12. 得肺癌To begin withAs we all knowtoxic substancesnicotinetarThat is to saysuffer from chronic diseaseshave a sore throatexperience eye irritationcause r

12、espiratory diseasesTo be more precisedevelop lung cancer表例證的一些常用表達1.for instance, for example, to illustrate, as an illustration（例如）2.for another instance（又如）3. A case in point is, 是個例子。4.A good example of this is非常好的一個例子是5.There is evidence that; It is reported that拓展段落的一些常用表達1. in other words換言之2.

13、that is to say也就是說3.to be more precise說的具體一些For example 和such as 的使用For example ，一般是用一個句子作例子， 而such as 是并列兩個以上名詞或動名詞短語作例子。如：1. I have many hobbies. For example, I like playing badminton very much.2.I have many hobbies such as playing badminton, collecting stamps and going camping.3.I have such hobbi

14、es as playing badminton and collecting stamps.Such as 可以跟在一個“總體名詞” （如句2中的hobbies ）之后，并列幾個實例（如句2），也可以將“總體名詞”夾在suchas 中間，然后再并列幾個例子（如句3）。2. 列舉法 運用列舉法，是通過列舉一系列論據(jù)對topic sentence中擺出論點進行廣泛、全面地陳述或解釋。用列舉法發(fā)展段落時，主題句常包含表示數(shù)量的詞，如：several, many, some, four 等。列舉細節(jié)時，可以根據(jù)各種內容的相對重要性，按一定的邏輯順序排列。 Social activities benef

15、it us in many ways. To begin with, these activities can widen our knowledge, because we can learn what we cant from our books. Second, these activities can serve as a bridge between theory and practice, because we can learn how to put our book knowledge into practice. Lastly, these activities can en

16、rich our experience, in that we can get to know the society well so that we can adapt to it easily when we graduate.本段的第一句是段落主題句，in many ways在這里為下面的列舉作好了鋪墊。作者用了to begin with, second和lastly作為連接語，條理清楚地列舉了社會活動有益的三個方面。舉例法與列舉法區(qū)別 舉例法（example）是通過舉出具體事例來闡述、說明主題句內容，嚴格地講，舉例法也是列舉法一種，它們區(qū)別在于：列舉法側重羅列事實，所列事實力求全面；而

17、舉例法側重通過舉出典型事例來解釋作者觀點，且事例可多可少。我們來看下面這個用舉例法展開段落。作者運用列舉法，是通過列舉一系列論據(jù)對topic sentence中擺出論點進行廣泛、全面地陳述或解釋，列舉順序可以按照所列各點內容相對重要性、時間、空間等進行。列舉常用的表達方法有: first, second, in the first place, first of all, to begin with, in the second place, next, also, besides, furthermore, moreover, in addition, what is more, beyon

18、d that, for one thing, for another, finally. 返回 分類法是將事物按照一定的標準、原則進行歸類，然后再分別進行說明、解釋。這種方法會使看似復雜的內容變得簡單有序。: 3. 分類法（developmentbyclassification）例 As far as political views are concerned, people fall into three categories. First are the conservative people. Conservatives are opposed to sudden or great ch

19、anges. Second are the liberal people. These people are in favor of progress and reform. But their opinions often seem too idealistic. Third are the moderate people. The moderates keep everything within reasonable limits. They are more practical in this hard world. In my opinion, most people seem to

20、belong to this group.本段把人按政治觀點分為三類:保守派(conservative people)、自由派(liberal people)和溫和派(moderate people),并對他們各自的特征進行了簡要的分析。 因果分析是常用的拓展段落的方法之一，一定要注意推理的邏輯性, 因果關系必須表達清楚，不能因果混淆，更不能因果倒置，要避免牽強附會和循環(huán)論證。4. 因果分析法(cause and effect )E.g.1: The role of women in todays society is changing. One reason is that women ha

21、ve begun to assert themselves as independent people through the womens movement. Also, women are aware of the alternatives to staying at home. Another reason is that increasing numbers of women who enter new fields and interests serve as role models for other women. Moreover, men are becoming more c

22、onscious of the abilities of women and have begun to view their independence positively.4. 因果分析法(cause and effect )assert that/ sth to be/oneself as 宣稱，堅持（某種觀點/主張）alternatives to doing 做.可行的替代方案serve as (a) role model(s) for 成為的榜樣becoming more conscious of 越來越意識到ExerciseDirections：Read the following

23、 paragraph of cause and effect，adding suitable listing signals and linking expressionsThere are many reasons why languages change. _ , various languages that started from the same parent developed their own uniqueness after groups of speakers drifted away(漸漸離開/疏遠) from one another to establish isola

24、ted, independent communities. _, the independence of and interaction with foreign cultures, often as a result of military conquest, also contribute to language changes. _is the rapidly advancing technology and new systems of communication that bring all cultures and languages into close contact 使產(chǎn)生密

25、切聯(lián)系, with borrowing words, between languages, for a common phenomenon in the contemporary world. All languages change as the experiences of their speakers change.For one reasonMoreoverAnother reason比較（comparison）主要是指出兩個或兩個以上不同種類的事物的共同點或相似之處，如人物、地點、事物、思想、觀點等。對照（contrast）主要是指出它們的不同點。相同的或類似的特征可以組成比較，不同的特征則可以組成對照。不僅如此，比較和對比常常同時使用，這是因為比較中往往隱含著對比。4. 比較-對照法（comparison and contrast）E.g.1: Life in the