心理學專業(yè)英語基礎 34章

1、CHAPTER 3Cognitive PsychologyCognitive PsychologyPerception 知覺Attention 注意Memory 記憶PerceptionVisual perceptual organisation 視知覺組織性Top-down theories of perception 自上而下加工的知覺理論Bottom-up theories of perception 自下而上加工的知覺理論The development of perception 知覺的開展Visual perceptual organisationPerception is the

2、process of interpreting and organising the environmental information received by the senses.知覺是對感官接受的環(huán)境信息進行解釋和組織的過程。Visual perceptionVisual perceptual organisationFor visual perception, this involves taking the constantly fluctuating patterns of light which arrive from all over the environment, upsi

3、de-down, onto our two-dimensional retinas andFluctuate 波動,變動;動搖視覺認知，指接受來自周圍環(huán)境的持續(xù)變化的光線模式，自上而下地投射到我們的二維視網(wǎng)膜，以及Visual perceptual organisationDetecting the shape of objects in the environment;Establishing location in three-dimensional space;Recognising an object in terms of its shape, size, brightness an

4、d colour.In terms of 根據(jù)覺察環(huán)境中物體的形狀；在三維空間中建構物體的位置；根據(jù)這個物體的形狀、大小、亮度和顏色來識別它。Visual perceptual organisationBrightness ContrastPerceptionSelective Attentionfocus of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.Change BlindnessPerceptual Organization: GestaltVisual Capturetendency for vision to dominate the

5、 other senses.Gestalt - an organized whole tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.視覺捕捉視覺主宰其他感官的傾向。格式塔一個有組織地把分散信息整合成有意義的整體的傾向。Perceptual Organization: GestaltGrouping: the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groupsGrouping PrinciplesProximity - group near

6、by figures togetherSimilarity - group figures that are similarContinuity - perceive continuous patternsClosure - fill in gapsConnectedness - spots, lines, and areas are seen as unit when connected組合：將一些刺激組合成連貫的整體的知覺傾向組合的原那么臨近性相似性連續(xù)性閉合性連接性Perceptual Organization: GestaltIllusory Contours 虛假輪廓Perceptu

7、al Organization: GestaltGrouping PrinciplesPerceptual Organization: GestaltClosurePerceptual Organization: GestaltHow are Gestalt grouping principles at work here?Perceptual Organization: GestaltImpossible doghouseTop-down theories of perceptionSometimes referred to as constructivist theories, these

8、 theories stress the factors in the construction of reality that go beyond the information received from the senses.Gregorys theory and perceptual set theory regard perception as a very active process, whereby the individuals past knowledge, expectations and stereotypes seek out sensory data to comp

9、lete the picture.有時指建構理論。這些理論認為對事實的建構過程中的因素對知覺的影響大于感官接收的信息。Gregory的理論和知覺定勢理論把視覺當做一個非?；顫姷募庸み^程，因為過去的知識、期待、以及刻板印象都會影響感覺信息。Top-down theories of perceptionPerceptual Constancyperceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal image changecolorshape size知覺恒常性在映像和網(wǎng)膜成像變化的情況下，仍然把物體知覺為不變。顏色一致性形

10、狀一致性大小一致性Perceptual ConstancyPerceptual ConstancyTop-down theories of perceptionIllusions 錯覺Perceptual IllusionsPerceptual IllusionsMller-Lyer IllusionPerceptual IllusionsVisual perceptual organisationSize-Distance RelationshipPerceptual IllusionsPerceptual IllusionsPerceptual IllusionsPerceptual Il

11、lusionsIllusory DepthTop-down theories of perceptionPerceptual Set: Schemas知覺定勢：輪廓What you see in the center is influenced by perceptual set.Bottom-up theories of percptionThese theories emphasise the richness of the information entering the eye and the way that perception can occur from using all t

12、he information available.Gibson believes perception occurs directly from sensation, feature detection theories examine the processes involved in assembling perception from sensations.這些理論強調進入眼睛的信息豐富性，以及知覺可以通過使用所有可用的信息來發(fā)生的方式。吉布森認為視覺直接來自感覺，特征覺察理論檢驗了包含在通過由感覺聚集成為知覺過程中的加工。PerceptionThe development of per

13、ceptionIllusory Depth ExplanationThe development of perceptionDepth Perception: ability to see objects in three dimensions; allows us to judge distance.Binocular cues:retinal disparity: images from the two eyes differ; closer the object, the larger the disparityConvergence: neuromuscular cue; two ey

14、es move inward for near objects深度知覺：在三維空間內看到物體的能力。幫助我們判斷距離。雙眼線索，如：視網(wǎng)膜成像差異，即兩個眼睛所獲得的圖像略有不同。距離越近，差異性越大。雙眼輻合，神經肌線索，對于近的物體，兩個眼睛向內運動。The development of perceptionThe development of perceptionMonocular Cuesrelative size: smaller image is more distantInterposition: closer object blocks distant objectrelati

15、ve clarity: hazy object seen as more distantTexture: coarse - close; fine - distant單眼線索相對大?。合裨叫。矬w越遠。重疊：近的物體阻擋遠的物體的像。相對清晰度：越模糊，物體越遠。質地密度、結構級差：粗糙的近，細密的遠。The development of perceptionRelative SizeThe development of perceptionInterpositionThe development of perceptionMonocular Cues relative motion: clo

16、ser objects seem to move fasterlinear perspective: parallel lines converge with distancerelative brightness: closer objects appear brighter單眼線索相對運動：近的物體運動快。線性透視：平行線在遠處集合。相對亮度：較近的物體較亮。The development of perceptionPerspective TechniquesThe development of perceptionLight and ShadowThe development of pe

17、rceptionVisual CliffThe development of perceptionSensory Restriction:Blakemore & Cooper, 1970Kittens raised without exposure to horizontal lines later had difficulty perceiving horizontal bars.PerceptionDefinition: The focusing and concentration of mental effort that usually results in conscious awa

18、reness of certain aspects of external sensory stimuli or mental experiences (although most study has focused on the former).定義：心理努力的聚集和集中狀態(tài)，會引起意識對外界感覺刺激或內部心理經驗的覺察雖然大局部研究關注的是前者。AttentionThe vast amount of sensory information from all our senses has to be cut down to manageable proportions while readi

19、ng this you are probably not aware of the smells around you or the pressure on whatever part of your body you are resting on.由感官獲得的大局部感覺信息被劃分成可管理的很多局部。當你讀這段文字的時候，你可能不會注意到周圍的味道，或者是你身體倚靠的部位受到的壓力。AttentionSome studies have looked at focused or selective attention how certain stimuli are selected over o

20、thers through allocating attention.一些研究關注的是注意的集中性或者選擇性即通過注意分配，某些特定的刺激時如何被選擇成為注意對象的。AttentionOther studies have looked at divided attention how, within a limited capacity, attention can be allocated to more than one task at a time.其他研究關注的是注意的分散性即在注意資源有限的前提下，注意是如何在同一時間被分配到不同任務上的。AttentionResearch has

21、shown that if tasks are practised enough, they become automatic, need less attention, and can be successfully performed with other tasks.研究顯示，如果任務得到充分練習，就會成為自動加工，需要較少注意資源，并且可以和其他的任務一起成功完成。AttentionMemory 記憶persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information通過儲存、提取，對信息進行學習和

22、保存Flashbulb Memory 閃回記憶a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event對于有顯著情緒性的時刻或事件的清晰記憶MemoryMemory as Information Processingsimilar to a computer write to file, save to disk, read from disk類似于電腦寫文件，儲存，讀取MemoryEncodingthe processing of information into the memory system. i.e., extract

23、ing meaning編碼：使信息進入記憶系統(tǒng)的加工過程，如提取意義MemoryStoragethe retention of encoded information over time儲存：已經編碼的信息的長期保持MemoryRetrievalprocess of getting information out of memory提取：從記憶中獲取信息的加工過程MemorySensory Memorythe immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system感覺記憶，在記憶系統(tǒng)中對感覺信息的即時的、

24、初級的記錄Working Memoryfocuses more on the processing of briefly stored information工作記憶，短暫存儲的信息加工MemoryShort-Term Memoryactivated memory that holds a few items briefly短時記憶：激活的記憶中短暫維持的幾個工程look up a phone number, then quickly dial before the information is forgottenLong-Term Memorythe relatively permanent

25、 and limitless storehouse of the memory system長時記憶：記憶系統(tǒng)中，保存相對持久且容量無限MemoryA Simplified Memory ModelExternaleventsSensorymemoryShort-termmemoryLong-termmemorySensory inputAttention to importantor novel informationEncodingEncodingRetrievingEncoding: Getting Information InEncodingEffortfulAutomaticAuto

26、matic Processingunconscious encoding of incidental information對偶然發(fā)生信息的無意識編碼Space, time, frequencywell-learned information較好學習的信息word meaningswe can learn automatic processing自動加工可以學習reading backwardsEncodingEffortful Processingrequires attention and conscious effort需要注意和有意識地努力Rehearsalconscious repe

27、tition of information復述：有意識地重述信息to maintain it in consciousness to encode it for storageEncodingEbbinghaus used nonsense syllables 艾賓浩斯的無意義字母串學習TUV ZOF GEK WAVthe more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2Spacing Effectdistributed practice yields better long- term reten

28、tion than massed practiceEncodingEncoding201510508162432425364Time in minutestaken to relearnlist on day 2Number of repetitions of list on day 1Semantic Encoding語義編碼encoding of meaning, including meaning of wordsAcoustic Encoding聽覺編碼encoding of sound, especially sound of wordsVisual Encoding視覺編碼enco

29、ding of picture imagesWhat Do We Encode?EncodingImagery表象mental pictures, a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encodingMnemonics記憶術memory aidsespecially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devicesEncodingChunking組塊organizing items into

30、 familiar, manageable unitsoften occurs automaticallyuse of acronyms利用縮寫ARITHMETIC 算術 - A Rat In Toms House Might Eat Toms Ice CreamEncodingOrganized information is more easily recalledEncoding: ChunkingHierarchies 層級關系complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into c

31、ategories and subcategories.EncodingEncodingEncoding(automatic or effortful)Imagery(visualEncoding)Meaning(semanticEncoding)OrganizationChunksHierarchiesIconic Memory圖像記憶a momentary sensory memory of visual stimulia photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a secondEc

32、hoic Memory回聲記憶momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuliStorage: Retaining InformationShort-Term Memory limited in duration and capacity“magical number 7+/-2Storage: Short-Term Memory0102030405060708090369121518Time in seconds between presentationof contestants and recall request(no rehearsal all

33、owed)Percentagewho recalledconsonantsStorage: Long-Term MemoryHow does storage work?Karl Lashley (1950)rats learn mazelesion cortex test memoryit was a site of learning and memory storage (i.e. an engram 印記，痕跡) in the brain.Storage: Long-Term MemoryBroca (1960s)The production of language has been li

34、nked to the Brocas area since Pierre Paul Broca reported impairments in two patients. They had lost the ability to speak after injury to the posterior inferior frontal gyrus 額葉回后部of the brain.Synaptic changes 突觸變化Long-term Potentiationincrease in synapses firing potential after brief, rapid stimulat

35、ionStrong emotions make for stronger memoriessome stress hormones boost learning and retentionStorage: Long-Term MemoryExplicit Memory 外顯記憶memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare.also called declarative memory. 陳述性記憶hippocampus-neural center in limbic system 邊緣系統(tǒng) th

36、at helps process explicit memories for storage.Implicit Memory 內隱記憶retention independent of conscious recollection.also called procedural memory. 程序性記憶Storage: Long-Term MemoryMRI scan of hippocampus (in red) 海馬Storage: Long-Term MemoryRecall 回憶measure of memory in which the person must retrieve inf

37、ormation learned earlier as on a fill-in-the-blank testRecognition再認Measure of memory in which the person has only to identify items previously learned as on a multiple-choice testRetrieval: Getting Information OutRelearning重學memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning materi

38、al a second timePriming啟動activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memoryRetrievalDeja Vu (French)-already seencues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experienceIve experienced this before.“Deja-vu現(xiàn)象，原文為法語d j vu，中文翻譯為“即視感，簡單而言就是

39、“似曾相識，未曾經歷過的事情或場景仿佛在某時某地經歷過的似曾相識之感。Retrieval CuesMood-congruent Memory 心境一致性記憶tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with ones current mood memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cuesState-dependent Memorywhat is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or depressed) can mo

40、re easily be remembered when in same stateRetrieval CuesRetrieval CuesAfter learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants had their learning reactivated most strongly when retested in the same rather than a different context (Butler & Rovee-Collier, 1989).Forgetting can occur at any memory stage.As

41、we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it.ForgettingAmnesia-the loss of memory 失憶癥is a condition in which ones memory is lost. The causes of amnesia have traditionally been divided into categories. Functional causes are psychological factors, such as mental disorder, post-traumati

42、c stress or, in psychoanalytic terms, defense mechanisms.ForgettingInformation never enters the long-term memory. Forgetting as encoding failureExternaleventsSensorymemoryShort-termmemoryLong-termmemoryAttentionEncodingEncodingEncodingfailure leadsto forgettingEbbinghaus forgetting curve over 30 day

43、s- initially rapid, then levels off with time.Forgetting as encoding failure1234510152025301020304050600Time in days since learning listPercentage oflist retainedwhen relearningThe forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school.Forgetting as encoding failureRetentiondrops,then levels off 1 3 5 9 14

44、25 35 49Time in years after completion of Spanish course100% 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0Percentage oforiginalvocabularyretainedForgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory.Forgetting as retrival failureExternaleventsAttentionEncodingEncodingRetrieval failureleads

45、 to forgettingRetrievalSensorymemoryShort-termmemoryLong-termmemoryLearning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information.Proactive (forward acting) Interference前攝抑制disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information.Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference倒攝抑制disruptive effe

46、ct of new learning on recall of old information.InterferenceInterferenceRetroactive InterferenceInterference Without interferingevents, recall isbetterAfter sleepAfter remaining awake 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Hours elapsed after learning syllables90% 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0Percentageof syllablesrecalledMoti

47、vated Forgetting動機性遺忘people unknowingly revise memoriesRepression壓抑defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety - arousing thoughts, feelings, and memoriesInterferenceWe filter information and fill in missing piecesMisinformation Effect錯誤信息效應incorporating misleading information into on

48、es memory of an event.Source Amnesia來源遺忘attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined.Memory ConstructionEyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questionedMemory ConstructionDepiction of actual accidentLeading question:“About how fast were the cars

49、going when they smashed intoeach other?Study repeatedly to boost recallSpend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the materialMake material personally meaningfulUse mnemonic devices associate with peg 標記性 words-something already storedmake up storychunk-acronymsImprove Your MemoryActivate

50、 retrieval cues-mentally recreate situation and moodRecall events while they are fresh- before you encounter misinformationMinimize interference Test your own knowledgerehearsedetermine what you do not yet knowImprove Your MemoryCHAPTER 3Developmental PsychologyDevelopmental Psychology a branch of p

51、sychology that studies physical, cognitive and social change throughout the life span.Prenatal Development and the Newborn 40 days 45 days 2 months 4 monthsPrenatal Development and the NewbornRooting Reflex 覓食反射tendency to open mouth, and search for nipple when touched on the cheekPreferences 偏好huma

52、n voices and facesfacelike imagessmell and sound of motherPrenatal Development and the NewbornPrenatal Development and the NewbornHabituation習慣化decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulationPrenatal Development and the NewbornHaving habituated to the old stimulus, newborns preferred gazing at a

53、 new one.Infancy and Childhood: Physical DevelopmentMaturation 成熟biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior.relatively uninfluenced by experience.At birth3 months15 monthsCortical NeuronsInfancy and Childhood: Physical DevelopmentBabies only 3 months old can learn that kicki

54、ng moves a mobile-and can retain that learning for a month (Rovee-Collier, 1989, 1997).Schema圖式a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.Assimilation同化interpreting ones new experience in terms of ones existing schemas.Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive DevelopmentAccommodation順應

55、adapting ones current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.Cognition認知All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive DevelopmentTypical Age RangeDescription of StageDevelopmental PhenomenaBirth to nearly

56、 2 yearsSensorimotorExperiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing)Object permanenceStranger anxietyAbout 2 to 6 yearsAbout 7 to 11 yearsAbout 12 through adulthoodPreoperationalRepresenting things with words and images but lacking logical reasoningPretend playEgocentr

57、ismLanguage developmentConcrete operationalThinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operationsConservation Mathematical transformationsFormal operationalAbstract reasoningAbstract logicPotential for moral reasoningPiagets Stages of Cognitive D

58、evelopmentObject Permanencethe awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive DevelopmentBaby MathematicsShown a numerically impossible outcome, infants stare longer (Wynn, 1992)Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive DevelopmentConservationthe principle th

59、at properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive DevelopmentEgocentrismthe inability of the preoperational child to take anothers point of view.Theory of Mindpeoples ideas about their own and others mental states

60、- about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behavior these might predict.Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive DevelopmentObject PermanenceEgocentrismConservationAbstract logicInfancy and Childhood: Cognitive DevelopmentAutism自閉癥a disorder that appears in childhood.Marked by deficient commu