語(yǔ)言學(xué)期末總結(jié)

語(yǔ)言學(xué)期末總結(jié)語(yǔ)言學(xué)期末總結(jié)語(yǔ)言學(xué)期末總結(jié)V:1.0精細(xì)整理，僅供參考語(yǔ)言學(xué)期末總結(jié)日期：20xx年X月第一章語(yǔ)言的基本特征？Designfeaturesoflanguage?(p4-7)Arbitrariness,Duality,CreativityandDisplacementArbitrariness的三層含義？What’sthethreedifferentlevelsofArbitrariness?=1\*GB3①therelationshipbetweenthesoundofamorphemeanditsmeaningisarbitrary=2\*GB3②languageisnotarbitraryatthesyntacticlevel,inotherwords,syntaxislessarbitrarythanwords=3\*GB3③conventionalityistheothersideofthecoinofarbitrariness.Duality和Displacement的定義？(p5)ByDUALITYismeantthepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganizations.語(yǔ)言的功能？Functionsoflanguage?（p9）Informative,function,interpersonalfunction,performativefunction,emotivefunction,phaticcommunion,recreationalfunction,metalingualfunction.Performative的定義（

p11）Theperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersons,thekindoflanguageemployedinperformativeverbalactsisusuallyquiteformalandevenritualized.Theperformativefunctioncanextendtothecontrolofrealityasonsomemagicalorreligiousoccasions.Mainbranchesoflinguistics

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Phonetics,Phonology,Morphology,Syntax,Semantics,Pragmatics.Psycholinguistics

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PSYCHOLINGUISTICSinvestigatestheinterrelationoflanguageandmind,inprocessingandproducingutterancesandinlanguageacquisitionforexample.Inthepsycholinguisticstudyofgrammar,thepsycholinguisticconstraintsontheformofgrammarareexamined.Italsostudieslanguagedevelopmentinthechild,suchasthetheoriesoflanguageacquisition;biologicalfoundationsoflanguage;andaprofoundaspect—therelationshipbetweenlanguageandcognition.ImportantDistinctionsinLinguistics中各分點(diǎn)的定義？(p19)1.9.3Langue&Parole(p21)Saussure現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)的開山鼻祖Chomsky美國(guó)語(yǔ)言學(xué)家，轉(zhuǎn)換-生成語(yǔ)法的創(chuàng)始人第二章語(yǔ)音學(xué)研究的三個(gè)領(lǐng)域thethreemainareasofthestudyofsounds(Phonetics)

（p24）=1\*GB3①ArticulatoryPhoneticsisthestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds.=2\*GB3②AcousticPhoneticsisthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds.=3\*GB3③PerceptualorAuditoryPhoneticsisconcernedwiththepercecptionofspeechsounds.元音與輔音的區(qū)別Thedistinctionbetweenconsonantsandvowels?（p29）Consonantsareproduced”byaclosureinthevocaltract,,orbyanarrowingwhichissomarkedthataircannotescapewithoutproducingaudiblefriction”.Bycontrast,avowelisproducedwithoutsuch”stricture”sothat”airescapesinarelativelyunimpededwaythroughthemouthornose”.Thedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesintheobstructionofairstream.發(fā)音方式與發(fā)音位置Themannerandtheplaceofarticulation?（p30\31已劃出）Themannerofarticulation:thereare8tmannersofarticulation.Stop(orPlosive),Nasal,Fricative,Approximant,Lateral,Trill,TapandFlap,Affricate.Theplaceofarticulation:thereare11placesofarticulation.Bilabial,Labiodental,Dental,Alveolar,Postalveolar,Retroflex,Palatal,Velar,Uvular,Pharyngeal,Glottal記憶所有元音、基礎(chǔ)元音（CARDINALVOWELS）（p33\36坐標(biāo)法）記憶輔音（輔音表）（p35Table2.1）了解RP,GA（p36Table2.3……）元音的四個(gè)指標(biāo)ThefourbasicrequirementsofthedescriptionofEnglishvowels?（p37已劃出）=1\*GB3①theheightoftongueraising(high,mid,low).=2\*GB3②thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back).=3\*GB3③thelengthortensenessofthevowel(tensevs.laxorlongvs.short).=4\*GB3④lip-rounding(roundedvs.unrounded).輔音的指標(biāo)Coarticulation的兩個(gè)分類（p38已劃出）Ifthesoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound,asinthecaseoflanmb,itisknownasAnticipatoryCoarticulation.Ifthesoundshowstheinfluenceoftheprecedingsound,itisPerseverativeCoarticulation,asisthecaseofmap.超音段的四個(gè)主要特征Thefourprincipalsuprasegmentals?（p49已劃出）SyllableStructure,Stress,Intonation,Tone.一個(gè)音節(jié)由哪兩個(gè)部分構(gòu)成（p50已劃出）Wecandivideasyllableintotwoparts,theRhyme(orRime)andtheOnset.英語(yǔ)前面最多允許多少個(gè)輔音？在結(jié)尾最多允許……<Coda位置>(p50已劃出)TTheonsetpositionmaybeemptyorfilledbyaclusterofasmanyasthreeconsonants,whilethecodapositionmaybefilledbyasmanyasfourconsonants(asinsixth)第三章詞的三層含義Threesensesof“word”（p553.11的三個(gè)小標(biāo)題）=1\*GB3①Aphysicaldefinableunit=2\*GB3②Wordbothasageneraltermandasaspecificterm=3\*GB3③AgrammaticalunitHowtoideatifyword

（p57三個(gè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，三個(gè)小標(biāo)準(zhǔn)）Stability,RelativeUninterruptibility,Aminimumfreeform詞的分類Classificationofwords(p58)=1\*GB3①Variableandinvariablewords=2\*GB3②Grammaticalwordsandlexicalwords=3\*GB3③Closed-classwordsandopen-classwords=4\*GB3④WordclassVariable/invariablewords各自的概念（p58）Variablewords:variablewordsmayhaveinflectivechanges.Thatis,thesamewordmayhavedifferentgrammaticalformsbutpartofthewordremainsrelativelyconstant.Invariablewords:invariablewordsrefertothosewordssuchassince,when,seldom,through,hello.Theydonothaveinflectiveendings.Grammaticalwords和lexicalwords各自的概念(p58)Grammaticalwords:wordswhichmainlyworkforconstructinggroup,phrase,clause,clausecomplex,oreventextaregrammaticalwords,suchas,conjunctions,prepositions,articles,andpronouns.Lexicalwords:wordswhichmainlyworkforreferringtosubstance,actionandquality,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs,arelexicalwords.Lexicalwordscarrythemaincontentofalanguagewhilegrammaticalonesservetolinktogetherdifferentcontentparts,solexicalwordsarealsoknownasCONTENTWORDSandgrammaticalonesasFUNCTIONWORDS.Morpheme的概念(p61)Morphemeisthesmallestunitoflanguageintermsoftherelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.最小的發(fā)音單位phoneme（了解）TypesofMorphemes(p62)Morphemescanbesub-classifiedintodifferenttypes,dependingonwhatcriteriayouattempttofollow.=1\*GB3①Freemorphemeandboundmorpheme:ifthewordmayoccuralone=2\*GB3②Root,affixandstem:poly-morphemicwordsotherthancompoundsmaybedividedintorootsandaffixes=3\*GB3③Inflectionalaffixandderivationalaffix:concernedwithaffixesonlyRoot,affix,stem各自的概念(p62\63)Root:rootisthebaseformofawordthatcannotbafurtherbeanalyzedwithoutdestroyingitsmeaning.Thatistosay,itisthatpartofthewordthatisleftwhenalltheaffixesareremoved.Affix:affixisacollectivetermforthetypeofmorphemethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem),soitisnaturallybound.Stem:stemisanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.Itmaybethesameasaroot,whereasthelatterindicatesthatastemmaycontainarootandone,ormorethanone,derivationalaffix.理解前、中、后綴區(qū)別inflectionalaffix和derivationalaffix(p63\64三點(diǎn))Thesetwotypesofaffixhavethreedifferences:First,inflectionalaffixedaregenerallylessproductivethatdericationalaffixes:theyareoftenonlyaddaminuteordelicategrammaticalfunctiontothestem.Therefore,theyservetoproducedifferentformsofasinglelexeme.However,derivationalaffixesareveryproductiveinmakingnewwords.Second,inflectionalaffixesdonotchangethewordclassofthewordtheyattachto,whereasderivationalaffixesmightormightnot.Derivationalaffixesoftenchangethelexicalmeaning.弄清什么是endocentriccompound

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Sememe,morpheme,phoneme各自的定義（p68）Sememe:SEMEMEisthesmallestcomponentofmeaning.Morpheme:MORPHEMEisthesmallestunitoflanguageintermsoftherelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetherifislexicalorgrammatical.Phoneme:PHONEMEisthesmallestmeaningfulunitofsoundandmorphemeisthesmallestunitingrammar.七種造詞方式LexicalChangeProper（p733.3.1可能有單詞與其構(gòu)成法的連線，搞清相關(guān)概念）Invention,Blending,Abbreviation,Acronym,Back-formation,Analogicalcreation,Borrowing.第四章句法的關(guān)系Sentacticrelations(p84三種)Positionalrelation:POSITIONALRELATION,orWORDORDER,referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage.Relationofsubstitutability:RELATIONOFSUBSTITUTABILITYreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure.RelationofCo-occurrence:BytherelationofCO-OCCURRENCEonemeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.句法分析中wordlevel的幾個(gè)符號(hào)（p88學(xué)會(huì)運(yùn)用，記住Ex.4-8表中的句子即可）Word-levelPhrasalN=nounNP=nounphraseA=adjectiveAP=adjectivephraseV=verbVP=verbphraseP=prepositionPP=prepositionphraseDet=determinerS=sentenceorclauseAdv=adverbConj=conjunctionSNPVPDetNVNPDetNTheboyatetheappleTheboyatetheappleCoordination和Subordination的概念（p90）Coordination:COORDINATIONisacommonsyntacticpatterninEnglishandotherlanguagesformedbygroupingtogethertwoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,butandor.Thisphenomenonisknownascoordination.Subordination:SUBORDINATIONreferstotheprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus,onebeingdependentupontheother,andusuallyaconstituentoftheother.ThusthesubordinateconstituentsarewordswhichmodifytheHead,asshownintheunderlinedpartsoftheconstructions(page91).Consequently,theycanbecalledmodifiers.4.4.1Number(p96)NUMBERisagrammaticalcategoryusedfortheanalysisofwordclassesdisplayingsuchcontrastsassingular,dual,plural,etc.inEnglish,numberismainlyobservedinnouns,andthereareonlytwoforms:singularandplural,suchasdog:dogs.Numberisalsoreflectedintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs,suchasHelaughs:Theylaugh,thisman:thesemen.Inotherlanguages,forexample,French,themanifestationofnumbercanalsobefoundinadjectivesandarticles.中英的Gender區(qū)別(p97你\妳他\她)Case的中英對(duì)比Agreement的中英對(duì)比（p97\98）七大句子結(jié)構(gòu)類型sevensentencetypesaccordingtogrammaticalfunctionsoftheconstituentsinvolvedinasentence（p101）TypeSVCMaryiskind.(anurse)TypeSVAMaryishere.(inthehouse)TypeSVThechildislaughing.TypeSVOSomebodycaughttheball.TypeSVOCWehaveprovedhimwrong.(afool)TypeSVOAIputtheplateonthetable.TypeSVOOShegivesmeexpensivepresents.4.6.2從句的類型（p102）Thethreebasictypesofsubordinateclausearecomplement,adjunct(oradverbial)andrelativeclauses.4.7.2Cohesion的六種手段Sixcohesivedevices（p103）Conjunction,ellipsis,lexicalcollocation,lexicalrepetition,reference,substitution第五章Leech提出的七種意義7typesofmeaninginLeech’sSemantics(p105)ConceptualmeaningLogical,cognitive,ordenotativecontentAssociativemeaningConnotativemeaningSocialmeaningAffectivemeaningReflectedmeaningCollocativemeaningWhatiscommunicatedbyvirtueofwhatlanguagerefersto.Whatiscommunicatedofthesocialcircumstancesoflanguageuse.Whatiscommunicatedofthefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker/writer.Whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithanothersenseofthesameexpression.Whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithwordswhichtendtooccurintheenvironmentofanotherword.ThematicmeaningWhatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichthemessageisorganizedintermsoforderandemphasis.用自己的話解釋ReferentialTheory(p107)SenseRelations(p109)Synonymy:synonymyisthetechnicalnameforthesamenessrelation.Antonymy:antonymyisthenameforoppositenessrelation.Hyponymy:thetermHYPONYMYisofrecentcreation,whichhasnotfounditswaytosomesmalldictionariesyet.Butthenotionofmeaninginclusivenessisnotnew.Inotherwords,hyponymyisamatterofclassmembership.TheupperterminthissenserelationiscalledSUPERORDINATE,andthelowerterms,themembers,HYPONYMYS.重點(diǎn)是antonymy(p110)Therearethreemainsub-typesofantonymy:Gradableantonymy:thisisthecommonesttypeofantonymy.Theyaremainlyadjectives.Andtheyhavethreecharacteristics.First,theyareGRADABLE.Thatis,themembersofapairdifferintermsofdegree.Thedenialofoneisnotnecessarilytheassertionoftheother.Theymayhavecomparativeandsuperlativedegrees.Theymaybeexpressedbysepararewordsratherthanbyaddingmodifiers.Second,antonymysofthiskindaregradedagainstdifferentnorms.Third,onememberofapair,usuallythetermforthehigherdegree,servesasthecoverterm.Complementaryantonymy:incontrasttothefirsttype,themembersofapairinthistypearecomplementarytoeachother.Thatis,theydivideupthewholeofasemanticfieldcompletely.Notonlytheassertionofonemeansthedenialoftheother,thedenialofonealsomeanstheassertionoftheother.Tosomeextent,thedifferencebetweenthegradableandthecomplementarycanbecomparedtothetraditionallogicaldistinctionbetweenthecontraryandthecont