傳播學經典理論英文版

-.--.-..可修編-傳播學經典理論英文版[中文批注]目錄一、OpinionLeaders意見領袖 2二、5WBox5w理論 2三、TheBiasofCommunication傳媒偏向論 2四、TheSpiralofSilence沉默的螺旋 3五、Gatekeeper把關人理論 4六、Selectiveexposurehypothesis選擇性接觸假說 4七、KnowledgeGapTheory知識溝假5八、AgendaSettingTheory議程設置理論 5九、Magicbullettheory魔彈論 5十、Information（Innovation）DiffusionTheory信息（創(chuàng)新）擴散論 6十一、Usesandgratificationstheory(UGT)使用與滿足理論 十二、Cultivationtheory教養(yǎng)理論 8十三、Limited-EffectsTheory有限效果論 8十四、MarshallMcluhanMediaTheory麥克盧漢的媒介理論 2/11一、OpinionLeaders意見領袖Activeininformationnetworks,havemanyinformationchannels,sotheycanoftenprovideinformationandadviceforothersandcaninfluenceothers.的形成過程中起著重要的中介或過濾的作用，由他們將信息擴散給受眾，形成信息傳遞的兩級傳播。二、5WBox5w理論1.Whocommunicatestowhom?(sourcesandreceivers)2.Whycommunicate?(functionandpurposes)3.Howdoescommunicationtakeplace?(channels,languages,codes)4.Whatabout?(content,references,typesofinformation)5.Whataretheoutcomesofcommunication(intendorunintended),forinformation,understandings,actiontheRiseofMassMdia美國學者H·拉斯維爾于1948年在《傳播在社會中的結構與功能》一篇論文中，首次提出了構成傳播過程的五種基本要素，并按照一定結構順序將它們排列，形成了后來人們稱之“五W模式”或“拉斯維爾程式”的過程模式。這五個WWho（誰）SaysWhat（說了什么）InWhichChannel（通過什么渠道）ToWhom（向誰說）WithWhatEffect（有什么效果。三、TheBiasofCommunication傳媒偏向論Innis’centralfocusisthesocialhistoryofcommunicationmedia;hebelievedthattherelativestabilityofculturesdependsonthebalanceandproportionoftheirmedia.Tobeginourinquiryintothisarea,hesuggestsweaskthreebasicquestions:Howdospecificcommunicationtechnologiesoperate?Whatassumptionsdotheytakefromandcontributetosociety?Whatformsofpowerdotheyencourage?ForInnis,akeytosocialchangeisfoundinthedevelopmentofcommunicationmedia.Heclaimsthateachmediumembodiesabiasintermsoftheorganizationandcontrolofinformation.Anyempireorsocietyisgenerallyconcernedwithdurationovertimeandextensioninspace.Time-biasedmedia,suchasstoneandclay,aredurableandheavy.Sincetheyaredifficulttomove,theydonotencourageterritorialexpansion;however,sincetheyhavealonglife,theydoencouragetheextensionofempireovertime.Innisassociatedthesemediawiththecustomary,thesacred,andthemoral.Time-biasedmediafacilitatethedevelopmentofsocialhierarchies,asarchetypallyexemplifiedbyancientEgypt.ForInnis,speechisatime-biasedmedium.Space-biasedmediaarelightandportable;theycanbetransportedoverlargedistances.Theyareassociatedwithsecularandterritorialsocieties;theyfacilitatetheexpansionofempireoverspace.Paperissuchamedium;itisreadilytransported,buthasarelativelyshortlifespan.然而它們傳播的迅息卻限于當下，就比較短暫。他認為，傳播和傳播媒介都有偏向，大體上分為：口頭傳播的偏向與書面?zhèn)鞑サ钠?，時間的偏向與空間的偏向。下面這段話，痛快淋漓地闡明伊尼斯“傳播偏向論”的意旨、要害，說明媒介的性質和偏向，并且說明媒介為何有這些偏向。他說：比較輕。后者適合廣袤地區(qū)的治理和貿易……倚重空間的材料，有利于集中化……我們考慮大規(guī)模的政治組織，比如帝國時，必須立足在空間和時間兩個方面。我們要克服媒介的偏向，既不過分倚重時間，也不過分倚重空間-.--.-..可修編-強調媒介偏向、時間偏向和空間偏向的關系，并指出媒介與國家僚體制和的關系。他說：“一個成功的帝國必須充分認識到空間問題，空間問題既是軍事問題，也是政治問題；它還要認識到時間問題，時間問題既是朝代問題和人生壽限問題，也是問題。又說：“國家的官僚體制倚重空間，忽略時間。相反，卻倚重時間，忽略空間?！彼摹heSpiralofSilence沉默的螺旋ThespiralofsilenceisapoliticalscienceandmasscommunicationtheorypropoundedbytheGermanpoliticalscientistElisabethNoelle-Neumann.Spiralofsilencetheorydescribestheprocessbywhichoneopinionbecomesdominantasthosewhoperceivetheiropiniontobeintheminoritydonotspeakupbecausesocietythreatensindividualswithfearofisolation.Theassessmentofone'ssocialenvironmentmaynotalwayscorrelatewithreality.Foracontroversialissue,peoplewillwatchthe"climateofopinion"beforetheymakecomments.judgingtheiropinionwhetherthe"majorityopinion",whenpeoplefeelthattheirviewsare"majority"orinthe"advantage",itwilltendtoboldlyexpressthisopinion;whenfoundhisviewsare"afew"orina"disadvantage"theyoftenremain"silent."Themorepeopleremainsilent,themorefeelthattheirviewsarenotwellaccepted,thusaresult,themoretheytendtoremainsilent.Repeatedseveraltimes,theyformrepresenting"dominant"statusviewsandmorepowerful,whileholding"inferior"opinionsofpeoplesoundmoreandmoreweak,suchacycle,forminga"onemoreloudly,andtheothermoreandmoresilentspiraldowntheprocess."團的的螺旋，唯一的出路就是尊重少數(shù)派，聆聽反對者的聲音。五、Gatekeeper把關人理論Lewinwasfirstproposedthisidea.Agatekeeperisahumanwhocontrolsaccesstosomething,forexampleviaacitygate.Inthelate20thcenturythetermcameintometaphoricaluse,referringtoindividualswhodecidewhetheragivenmessagewillbedistributedbyamassmedium.Theinformationwasscreenedandfilteredbycommunicator.Communicatorsdecidewhatwecanseeandhowwecansee.叫做把關（即守門，凡有這種傳播行為的人就叫做把關人（守門人。六、Selectiveexposurehypothesis選擇性接觸假說Audienceinthecontactinformationofthemassmediaisnotindiscriminate,butmorewillingtochoosethecontentsthatarethesameorsimilartotheiropinion,andforthecontentsofthisconfrontationorconflict,thereisatendencytoavoid.受眾的群體背景可以分成兩個方面，一是人口統(tǒng)計學意義的群體，包括性別、年齡、籍貫、民族、職業(yè)、學歷等等；二是社會關系意義上的群體，如家庭、單位、團體、政治、經濟和文化的歸屬階層，信仰群體等等。受眾個人的群體屬性不同，意味著他們所處的時代、社會環(huán)境、社會化的條件、社會地位、價值和信念、對事物的立場觀點和看法、心理特點和文化背景都有很大差異，對大眾傳媒信息的需求、接觸和反應方式也是千差萬別。七、KnowledgeGapTheory知識溝假說Becausethepeoplewhohavehighereconomicstatusisusuallymuchfastertogetinformationthanthoseoflowsocioeconomicstatus,therefore,themoreinformationistransmittedbythemassmedia,theknowledgegapbetweenthetwotypesofpeopleismoretendtoexpand.基本觀點：類人之間的知識溝擴大，而不是縮小。一段時間媒介大量宣傳某話題，文化程度較高的人比低的人以更快的速度吸取該話題的知識。AgendaSettingTheory議程設置理論Massmediareportanissueornotdirectlyaffectpeople'sperceptiononthesubject.Massmediahighlightsanissuewillcausepeopletopaymoreattentiontotheissue.Massmediaonarangeoftopicsgivedifferentlevelsofcoverageaccordingtoacertainorderofpriority,itwillaffectpeople’sjudgmentaboutimportanceoftheseissues.1968年，麥克姆斯和肖對總統(tǒng)大選進行了調查，看媒介議程對公眾議程有多大的影響。1972年提出了議程設置理論，該理論認為大眾傳播往往不能決定人們對某一事件或意見的具體看法，但可以通過提供給信息和安排相關的議題來有效地左右人們關注哪些事實和意見及他們談論的先后順序。大眾傳播可能無法影響人們怎么想，卻可以影響人們去想什么。九、Magicbullettheory魔彈論Themessagesentbythemassmediaislikeamagicbullet,buttheaudienceasthetargetwithoutprotection,sotheaudiencecaneasilybeknockeddownbythemessagesentbythemassmedia.Thetheoryisthatmassmediahavepowerfulforcewhichcandirectlyaffectaudience.它們能夠左右人們的態(tài)度和意見，甚至直接支配他們的行動。這種理論流行于第一次世界大戰(zhàn)至20世紀30年代，到40年代這一理論便6/11為宣傳的實踐所打破。十、Information（Innovation）DiffusionTheory信息（創(chuàng)新）擴散論Information （ Innovation DiffusionTheoryisatheorythatseekstoexplainhow,why,andatwhatratenewideasandtechnologyspreadthroughcultures.EverettRogers,aprofessorofcommunicationstudies,popularizedthetheoryinhisbookDiffusionofInnovations;Rogersarguesthatdiffusionistheprocessbywhichaninnovationiscommunicatedthroughcertainchannelsovertimeamongtheparticipantsinasocialsystem.Theoriginsofthediffusionofinnovationstheoryarevariedandspanmultipledisciplines.Rogersproposesthatfourmainelementsinfluencethespreadofanewidea:theinnovationitself,communicationchannels,time,andasocialsystem.Thisprocessreliesheavilyonhumancapital.Theinnovationmustbewidelyadoptedinordertoself-sustain.Withintherateofadoption,thereisapointatwhichaninnovationreachescriticalmass.Thecategoriesofadoptersare:innovators,earlyadopters,earlymajority,latemajority,andlaggards.Diffusionmanifestsitselfindifferentwaysinvariousculturesandfieldsandishighlysubjecttothetypeofadoptersandinnovation-decisionprocess.創(chuàng)新推廣理nnTheor又譯成創(chuàng)新傳播理論創(chuàng)新散布理論創(chuàng)新擴散理論革新傳播理論等“創(chuàng)新推廣”最早出現(xiàn)于20世紀初法國社會學家、哲學家GabrielTarde的《模仿定律（theLawofImitation）一書。最早將現(xiàn)代創(chuàng)新推廣理論運用于實踐研究中的是美國愛荷華州立大學的 Ryan和Gross于1943年進行的一個農業(yè)研究項目。Ryan和Gross從農業(yè)社會學的角度出發(fā)，對創(chuàng)新技術的一些采用者進行訪談，以此來考察與采用技術相關的一系列因素。這種基于訪談形式的研究方法從此成為創(chuàng)新推廣研究的一種主要研究法。而最早將擴散推廣理論作為傳播學容進行研究的，同時在這方面的研究中最負盛名的當首推傳播學家羅杰斯(EverettM.Rogers(DiffusionofInnovation1960年，現(xiàn)在最新的版本為1995員所了解與采用的過程，也是推廣作用的應用。書中所論述到的創(chuàng)新推廣理論中，其中有幾點受到廣泛關注：（一）創(chuàng)新的推廣決策過程，包括五個階段1(Knowledge)接觸創(chuàng)新并略知其如何運作2有關創(chuàng)新的態(tài)度形成3、決策(Decision)——確定采用或拒絕一項創(chuàng)新活動4、實施(Implementation)——投入創(chuàng)新的運用5、確認(Confirmation)——強化或撤回關于創(chuàng)新的決定（二）受采用的創(chuàng)新的特征1、相對優(yōu)越性——一項創(chuàng)新優(yōu)越于它所取代的舊觀念的程度；2、兼容性——一項創(chuàng)新與現(xiàn)有價值觀、以往經驗預期采用者的需求同存的程度；3、復雜性——一項創(chuàng)新理解和運用的難度；4、可實驗性——一項創(chuàng)新在有限基礎上可被試驗的程度；十一、Usesandgratificationstheory(UGT)使用與滿足理論Usesandgratificationstheory(UGT)isanapproachtounderstandingwhyandhowpeopleactivelyseekoutspecificmediatosatisfyspecificneeds.UGTisanaudience-centeredapproachtounderstandingmasscommunication.Divergingfromothermediaeffecttheoriesthatquestion"whatdoesmediadotopeople?",UGTfocuseson"whatdopeopledowithmedia?"Thiscommunicationtheoryispositivisticinitsapproach,basedinthesocio-psychologicalcommunicationtradition,andfocusesoncommunicationatthemassmediascale.ThedrivingquestionofUGTis:Whydopeopleusemediaandwhatdotheyusethemfor?UGTdiscusseshowusersdeliberatelychoosemediathatwillsatisfygivenneedsandallowonetoenhanceknowledge,relaxation,socialinteractions/companionship,diversion,orescape.Itassumesthataudiencemembersarenotpassiveconsumersofmedia.Rather,theaudiencehaspowerovertheirmediaconsumptionandassumesanactiveroleininterpretingandintegratingmediaintotheirownlives.Unlikeothertheoreticalperspectives,UGTholdsthataudiencesareresponsibleforchoosingmediatomeettheirdesiresandneedstoachievegratification.Thistheorywouldthenimplythatthemediacompeteagainstotherinformationsourcesforviewers'gratification.UGThasaheuristicvaluetodaybecauseitgivescommunicationscholarsa"perspectivethroughwhichanumberofideasandtheoriesaboutmediachoice,consumption,andevenimpactcanbeviewed（UsesandGratificationstheory（media可以主動使用媒體來尋找可滿足自使用媒介的動機。使用與滿足理論是由 ElihuKatz、JayBlumler、MickaelGurevitch等學者于1974年出版的《大眾傳播媒體的使用》（TheusesofMassCommunication）一書中所提出。此理論強調以「主動的閱聽人」為中心，反對媒體萬能論以來被8/11十二、Cultivationtheory教養(yǎng)理論-.--.-..可修編-Cultivationtheoryisasocialtheorywhichexaminesthelong-termeffectsoftelevision."Theprimarypropositionofcultivationtheorystatesthatthemoretimepeoplespend"living"inthetelevisionworld,themorelikelytheyaretobelievesocialrealityportrayedontelevision.Cultivationleavespeoplewithamisperceptionofwhatistrueinourworld.DevelopedbyGeorgeGerbnerandLarryGrossoftheUniversityofPennsylvania,cultivationtheoryderivedfromseverallarge-scaleresearchprojectsaspartofanoverallresearchprojectentitled'CulturalIndicators'.ThepurposeoftheCulturalIndicatorsprojectwastoidentifyandtrackthe'cultivated'effectsoftelevisiononviewers.Theywere"concernedwiththeeffectsoftelevisionprogramming(particularlyviolentprogramming)ontheattitudesandbehaviorsoftheAmericanpublic."GerbnerassertsthattheoverallconcernabouttheeffectsoftelevisiononaudiencesstemmedfromtheunprecedentedcentralityoftelevisioninAmericanculture."Thetheoryclearlypositsthatthecultivationeffectoccursonlyafterlong-term,cumulativeexposuretotelevision."HeclaimedthatbecauseTVcontainssomuchviolence,"peoplewhospendthemosttimeinfrontofthetubedevelopanexaggeratedbeliefinameanandscaryworld."Hepositedthattelevisionasamassmediumofcommunicationhadformedintoacommonsymbolicenvironmentthatbounddiversecommunitiestogether,socializingpeopleintostandardizedrolesandbehaviors."Today,theTVsetisakeymemberofthehousehold,withvirtuallyunlimitedaccesstoeverypersoninthefamily."Hecomparedthepoweroftelevisiontothepowerofreligion,sayingthattelevisionwastomodernsocietywhatreligiononcewasinearliertimes.CultivationAnalysisisapositivistictheory,meaningitassumestheexistenceofobjectiverealityandvalue-neutralresearch.AstudyconductedbyJenningsBryantandDorinaMiron(2004),whichsurveyedalmost2,000articlespublishedinthethreetopmasscommunicationjournalssince1956,foundthatCultivationAnalysiswasthethirdmostfrequentlyutilizedtheory,showingthatitcontinuestobeoneofthemostpopulartheoriesinmasscommunicationresearch.教養(yǎng)理論nTheor，又稱培養(yǎng)理論、涵化理論、涵化假設、涵化分析，格伯納等人認為，在現(xiàn)代社會傳播媒介提示的“象征性現(xiàn)實”對人們認識和理解現(xiàn)實世界發(fā)揮著巨大的影響。由于傳播媒介的某些傾向性、人們研究稱為“教養(yǎng)理論十三、Limited-EffectsTheory有限效果論Mediararelydirectlyinfluenceindividuals.Thereisatwo-stepflowofmediainfluence.9/11Bythetimemostpeoplebecomeadults,theyhavedevelopedstronglyheldgroupcommitmentssuchaspoliticalpartyandreligiousaffiliations.Theseaffiliationsprovideaneffe..可修編-ctivebarrier-againstmediainfluence. . -Whenmediaeffectsdooccur,theyaremodestandisolated.有限效果論主要觀點是：大眾傳播沒有力量直接改變受傳者對事物的態(tài)度，在人們作出某種決定之際，許多其他因素起著重要的作用，其中包括個人的政治、經濟、文化、心理的既有傾向受傳者對信息的需求和選擇性接觸機制，群體歸屬關系和群體規(guī)，大眾傳播過程中的人際影響等等。十四、MarshallMcluhanMediaTheory麥克盧漢的媒介理論TheextensionsofmanMcluhan ’sideathatmedialiterallyextendsight,hearing,andtouchthroughtimeandspace.2.TheMediumIstheMassageMcluhan ’sideathenewformsofmediatransformourexperienceofourselvesandoursocietyandthisinfluenceisultimatelymoreimportantthanthecontentofspecificmessages.3.TheGlobalVillageMcluhan ’sconceptionofanewformofsocialorganizationemergingasinstantaneouselectronicmediatietheentireworldintoonegreatsocial,politicalandculturalsystem4."Hot"and"cool"mediaInthefirstpartofUnderstandingMedia,McLuhanalsostatedthatdifferentmediainvitedifferentdegreesofparticipationonthepartofapersonwhochoosestoconsumeamedium.Somemedia,suchasfilm,were"hot"-thatis,theyenhanceonesinglesense,inthiscasevision,insuchamannerthatapersondoesnotneedtoexertmucheffortinfillinginthedetailsofamovieimage.McLuhancontrastedthiswith"cool"TV,whichheclaimedrequiresmoreeffortonthepartofviewertodeterminemeaning,andcomics,whichduetotheirminimalpresentationofvisualdetailrequireahighdegreeofefforttofillindetailsthatthecartoonistmayhaveintendedtoportray.AmovieisthussaidbyMcLuhantobe"hot",intensifyingonesinglesense"highdefinition",demandingaviewer'sattention,andacomicbooktobe"cool"and"lowdefinition",requiringmuchmoreconsciousparticipationbythereadertoextractvalue.麥克盧漢的媒介理論：（一）媒介是人體的延伸 （二）媒介即訊息 （三）熱媒介與冷媒介10/11（四）地球村（五）對麥克盧漢媒介理論的總體評價-.--.-..可修編-（一）媒介是人體的延伸1、容媒介是人體感官能力的延伸和擴:文字印刷媒介是視覺能力的延伸，廣播是聽覺能力的延伸，電視是視覺、聽和觸覺能力的延伸。 、評價這個觀點的提出是為了說明傳播媒介對人類感覺中樞的影響，他認為媒介和社會的發(fā)展史同時也是人的感官能力由"統(tǒng)合——分化——再統(tǒng)合"的歷史。麥克盧漢的"媒介即人的延伸"的觀點具有重要的啟發(fā)意義，但是它并不是嚴密的科學考察的結論，而是建在"洞"基礎上的一種思辨性的推論。 （二）媒介即訊息 、容媒介本身才是真正的訊息，也就是說，人類有了某種媒介才可能從事與之相應的傳播或其他社會活動，因此真正有意義的訊息不是各個時代的傳播容，而是這個時代所使用的傳播工具的性質，以及它所帶來的可能性和造成的會后果。 2、評價 意:（1）這是麥克盧漢對傳播媒介技術在人類社會發(fā)展中的地位和作用的高度概括。 （2）強調媒體是社會發(fā)展動力，也是區(qū)分不同社會形態(tài)的標志 缺:——極端性——媒介的社會占有結構，所有制關系如何，也反過來規(guī)定媒介活動的特點和作用性質。（三）熱媒介與冷媒介 、含義廣播、電影等。需要受眾參與其中的程度低等。 2、評價心理行為反應也各具特點，對媒介的研究應把這些因素考慮在，但是這種分類的確有些牽強而且似是而非。四）地球村 、容:在自然社會，口語是主要以傳播媒介，人的交往受距離的限制，文學印刷媒介產生后，人類由"耳朵的社會"進入"任何國家和社會都是村莊的一部分。 、影響度大大增強，經社交等社會結構要素的形態(tài)發(fā)生了前所未有的變化。（五）對麥克盧漢媒介理論的總體評價1、意義有介質。他將媒介置于一個廣闊的社會，歷史情境中研究。因此其媒介分析有了高度和縱深的品質。開拓了從媒介技術出發(fā)觀察人類社會發(fā)展的視角，并強調了媒介技術的社會歷史作用。用。關于地球村的預言也符合當前世界的發(fā)展趨勢。 2、局限會因素的作用。忽略了人的主體性和主觀能動性，人仿佛成為媒介主宰的對象。 （3）忽視媒介具體容，對冷熱媒介劃分過于牽強（4）全部依據(jù)都集中在媒介工具對中樞感覺系統(tǒng)的影響上，由此解釋的人類行為也是片面的。1、冷媒介和熱媒介Ahotmediumisonethatextendonesinglesensein “highdefinition“Highdefinitionisthestateofbeingwellfilledwithdate.And,hotmediadonotleavesomuchtobefilledorincompletedbytheaudience,namly,lowinparticipation,suchasradia,moive.Bycontrast,acoldmediunislowdedinitionanditgivesaamountofinformation,there,coolmediaarehighin-.--.-..可修編-participationorcompletionbyaudience.forexample,aphoto,thereistoolittleinformationtounderstand.2兩級傳播.two-stepflowofcommunicationIn simple words,it can be drawn”media source—opinion leaders population.”whentheopinionleadersadoptedthatfrommedia,thus,changeshadhappenedonthepupulace.thissuggeststhatideasofenflowfromtotheopinionleadersandfromthemthelessactivesectionof thepopulation.Toillustrateit,I’llgiveanexample:AmanisgoingtovoteAforpredisent,buthisfriendstronglyrecommendedB,what ’smore,hisfriendlistsmanyreasonsthatfrommedia,atlast,themanchoosedB.Thevotingcourseisthetwo-stepflowofcommunication.3.意見領袖opinionleadershipTheopinionleadershipplaydaspecialroleinthenetworkofpersonalrelationgships,theyengagedinpoliticaldissionmuchmorethantherestoftherespondents.oillustrateit,I giveanexample:AmanisgoingtovoteAforpredisent,buthisfriendstronglyrecommendedB,what’smore,hisfriendlistsmanyreasonsthatfrommedia,atlast,themanchoosedB.Inthiscourse,thefriendistheopinionleadership.Threehypothetialpositions①．Thefirsthypothetialpositionisthedominant-hegemonicposition,stateinanotherway,whentheviewertakestheconnotedmeaningfromamedium,thedecodesthemessageintermsofthereferencecodeinwhichithasbeenecoded,wemightsaytheviewerisoperatinginside thedominantcode.②.Thesecondisnegotiatedcode.simply,corporatedecodings,decodingwithinthenegotiatedversioncontainsamixtureofadaptiveandoppositionalelements.what’smore,negotiatedcodesoperatethroughparticularorsituatedlogics.③.Thethirdisoppositionalcode.Asweallknow,itispossibleforaviwerperfectlytounderstandthemeaninggivenbyadiscoursebuttodecodethemessageinagloballycontraryway.Viwersdetotalizedthemessageinthepreferredcodeinorderto