ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety市公開課一等獎省賽課獲獎?wù)n件

ChapterSeven

Language,Culture,andSociety1ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第1頁Teachingaims:tostudytherelationbetweenculture,societyandlanguageTeachingfocuses:TheSapir-WhorfHypothesis,LanguageVariationTeachingprocedures:

1.Languageandculture2.Languageandsociety2ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第2頁1.LanguageandCulture3ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第3頁Whatisculture?

Inabroadsense,culturemeansthetotalwayoflifeofapeople,includinghowtospeak,howtoact,howtothink,howtofeel,etc.Inanarrowsense,culturemayrefertolocalorspecificpractice,beliefsorcustoms,whichcanbemostlyfoundinfolkculture,enterprisecultureorfoodculture,etc.Therearegenerallytwotypesofculture:materialandspiritual.4ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第4頁1.1TherelationshipbetweenL&CGenerally,therelationofLtoCisthatofparttowhole,forLispartofC.Theknowledgeandbeliefsthatconstituteapeople’sculturearehabituallyencodedandtransmittedinL.5ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第5頁Anthropologicalstudyoflinguistics:studyoflanguageinasocioculturalcontext.LondonSchool:B.Malinowski&J.FirthNorthAmericanSchool:F.Boas,E.Sapir&B.L.Whorf6ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第6頁LondonSchool:BronislawMalinowski(1884-1942):Themeaningofawordgreatlydependsuponitsoccurrenceinagivencontext.Languagefunctionsasalinkinhumanactivity,amodeofaction.ThewordwoodontheTrobriandIslandsoffeasternNewGuineaSpeechcommunity言語小區(qū)7ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第7頁LondonSchool:J.R.Firth(1890-1960):theoryofthecontextofsituation(情景語境理論)Therelevantfeaturesoftheparticipants,persons,personalities.TheverbalactionoftheparticipantsThenon-verbalactionoftheparticipantsTherelevantobjects.Theeffectsoftheverbalaction.“whospeakswhattowhomandwhenandtowhatend”8ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第8頁LondonSchool:Halliday(1925-

)Studylanguage

fromasocialsemioticorinteractionalperspectiveFunctionalinterpretationofgrammarasaresourceformeaningpotentialLinguisticmodelinthestudyofliterature9ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第9頁North

AmericanSchool:HistoricalBackgrounddisappearanceofNativeIndian’stribesandculturesAnthropologisttriedtoreconstructtheAmericanNativelanguages.SuchasF.Boas,E.Sapir&B.L.Whorf,andD.Hymesfieldwork,first-handevidence10ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第10頁DellHymes(1927-):Ethnographyofcommunication(交際民俗學(xué))Speechcommunity.Situation,event,andact.SPEAKING:situation,participants,ends,actsequence,key,instrumentalities,norms,andgenres11ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第11頁1.2Sapir-WhorfHypothesisEdwardSapir(1884-1939)andBenjaminLeeWhorf(1897-1941)Ourlanguagehelpsmouldourwayofthinkingand,consequently,differentlanguagesmayprobablyexpressspeakers’uniquewaysofunderstandingtheworld.

Twopointsinhistheory:

LanguagedeterminesourthinkingpatternsSimilaritybetweenlanguagesisrelative.Thegreatertheirstructuraldifferentiations,themorediversetheirconceptualizationoftheworldwillbe.12ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第12頁Sapir-WhorfHypothesisLinguisticdeterminism(語言決定論):語言決定思維Linguisticrelativity(語言相對論)：思維相對于語言，思維模式伴隨語言不一樣而不一樣。expoundedbyWilhelmvonHumboldt,aGermanethnologist

EugeneNida:alinguistandtranslationtheoristAstranslators,ifwewanttodoagoodjobinCROSS-CULTURALCOMMUNICATION,weshouldalwaysbeawareofsometypesofsub-culture.13ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第13頁MoreabouttheSapir-Whorfhypothesis:Thestrongversion(強式說):EmphasizesthedecisiveroleoflanguageastheshaperofourthinkingpatternsTheweakversion(弱式說):Suggestthatthereisacorrelationbetweenlanguage,culture,andthought,thecross-culturaldifferencesproducedinourwaysofthinkingarerelative,ratherthancategorical.14ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第14頁English:horseshoeFrench:feracheval——ironforhorseGerman:hufeisen——hoofironTheEskimoshavecountlesswordsforsnow.TheArabs,forcamels.15ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第15頁OtherLinguisticevidencesofculturaldifferencesTermsofaddressGreetingsThanksandcomplimentsPrivacyandtaboosColorwords16ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第16頁印歐語言：嚴式語言→嚴式思維軌跡→結(jié)構(gòu)分析→邏輯演繹→智性精神漢語：寬式語言→寬式思維軌跡→整體領(lǐng)悟→類比聯(lián)想→悟性精神17ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第17頁Alivelycontroversyaboutthehypothesis:Twoexamplestoshowthecomplexityandcontroversyofthetheory:OneisquotedfromHopi,anAmericannativelanguagespokeninArizona;theotheristakenfromalanguagespokeninthecentralhighlandsofIrianJaya(伊里安島，太平洋).Thefirstexampleservestoshowhowlanguagesmaydifferfromeachother.Thesecondexampleservestochallengethehypothesis.18ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第18頁InHopi,thereissomethingveryspecialaboutitsgrammar.Oneofthefeaturesthatseparateitfromotherlanguagesisthatitdoesnotusethesamemeanstoexpresstime,andhenceiscalledasa“timelesslanguage”(沒有時間語言).Donotrecognizetimeasalineardimension.Hopiverbsdonothavetensesoftimeandnoconceptofspeed.19ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第19頁TwoAmericanscholarsconductedalargecross-linguisticinvestigationofbasiccolorvocabulary.ThefindingisthatcolorwordsystemsindifferentlanguagesarenotlikewhathasbeenassumedbytheSapirandWhorfhypothesis,beingculturallydeterminedandhenceabsolutelydifferentfromoneanother.20ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第20頁Differentlanguagesmightwellundergoauniversalevolutionaryprocessofdevelopmentwhichmadethebasiccolorsysteminonelanguagedifferentfromthatinanotheronlyintermsofthestagesoftheirevolution.SeethebasicevolutionarystagesofbasiccolorwordsonPage165.Accordingtothisevolutionarytheory,Englishhasalltheelevenbasiccolorwordssoitreachesthelaststageofevolution.Thistheorycorrectlycapturesakindofgeneralizationincolorwordscross-culturally.21ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第21頁ThisevolutionarytheoryfindsagoodexampleinthesecondexampleoftheIrianlanguage,alanguagewhichhasbecomewellknownforitsveryrestrictedsystemofbasiccolorwords.Thereareonlytwobasiccolorwordsinthislanguage:modlaforlight,bright,hence,white,andmili

fordark,dull,hence,black.WhatwillnativeIrianlanguagespeakerdoifhe/shewantstodesignatecolorsotherthanblackandwhite?Ordowhiteandblackalwaysmeanwhiteandblackcross-linguistically?22ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第22頁TheinvestigationrevealedthatnativespeakersofthiscultureusethisWhiteversusBlackcontrasttoconveymoremessagesabouttheircolorperception.Theyusemodla

asageneralcolortermtoincludeallwarmcolorssuchasredandyellowandusemiliasanotherumbrellacolorwordtocoverallthecoldcolors.Therefore,thecontrastbetweenmodlaandmiliinfactisacontrastbetween“whitewarmness”versus“blackcoldness”.23ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第23頁ThecolorwordsystemintheIrianlanguageisstillinitsfirststageofevolutionandbymeansofusingthiswhitewarmnessandblackcoldnesscontrastandothertypesofcolorwordsderivedfromobjectnames,animals,plantsandsoon,thespeakersfromthisculturecansuccessfullyexpressanycolorslabelledbydistinctcolorwordsinanotherculture.24ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第24頁語言含有普遍性理論。認知科學(xué)強調(diào)人類認知共性，這跟語言相對論恰好針鋒相對。強調(diào)人類認知基礎(chǔ)是人遺傳天賦。常舉一個例子是顏色詞研究。從表面上看各種語言顏色詞各不相同，但Berlin和Kay研究（1969）發(fā)覺它們有共性。任何語言最少都有兩個顏色詞（白和黑），新幾內(nèi)亞高地語只有“白”和“黑”兩個顏色詞。英語有11個顏色詞。有右邊顏色詞，就必有其左邊顏色詞。這就是語言共性，而且認知語言學(xué)家認為這種共性是有生理基礎(chǔ)，那就是白色跟黑色含有最強聚焦性，因為眼睛對這兩種光頻最敏感。楊永林，色彩語碼研究進化論與相對論之爭，《外語教學(xué)與研究》第3期，第190-195頁。25ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第25頁Sapir-WhorfHypothesis

Wemustbecarefulanddonotrushtoayhastyconclusionbeforewereallyobtainsomereliableevidencetosupportorrejectthehypothesis.Donotalwaysevaluatealanguagesystemagainstthecriteriainourmothertongue.Thestrongversionhasveryfewadherentstoday.26ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第26頁Culture-loadedwords燙手山芋vs.hotpotato雨后春筍vs.springlikemushroom大魚大肉vs.meatandpotatoes酒肉朋友vs.fair-weatherfriendkillthegoosethatlaysthegoldeneggsvs.殺雞取卵27ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第27頁CulturaloverlapanddiffusionThroughcommunication,someelementsofcultureAentercultureBandbecomespartofcultureB.LoanwordsinChineseandEnglish.肥皂劇、卡通、布丁、蘋果派、雀巢、巴士、耐克、因特網(wǎng)、KTV、EMAILTyphoon,kongfu,tofu,tea,etc.28ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第28頁Netspeak網(wǎng)絡(luò)語言頂(支持)555(嗚嗚嗚)粉絲(fans)mm/MM(妹妹)LZ(樓主)DD/dd(弟弟)88(拜拜)偶(我)馬甲(ID)沙發(fā)斑竹(版主)稀飯(喜歡)汗或寒(敬畏)暈(非常驚異)ps/PS(photoshop簡稱)灌水(發(fā)帖子)ddd(頂頂頂)bs/BS(藐視)ms(貌似)滴(、地)29ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第29頁1.3CasestudiesTheinterplayoflanguageandculturemayrangefromtextualstructuretophonologicalvariation.Kaplan(1966):Thestructuralorganizationofatexttendstobeculturallyspecific.Nida(1998):Wordsaresometimes“idiomatically-governed”and“culturally-specific”.30ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第30頁楊永林(1993)madeseveralcasestudiesthroughhispersonalexposuretotheAmericanculture.1)Whenyougetyourhandsdirty,itdoesnotnecessarilymeanintheAmericanculturethatyou’vedonesomemanualworkandneedtowashyourhand.(practicesomething,beengagedindoingsomething)2)Whenyouhaveenoughdumbbells(啞鈴),itdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatyoukeeppairsofthisinstrumentforregularphysicalpractices.(havelotsofstupidguys)31ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第31頁1.4Doweneedcultureinourlinguisticstudy?Yes.AstudyoflinguisticissuesinaculturalsettingcangreatlypromoteourunderstandingofMOTIVATIONandDIRECTIONALITYinlanguagechange.有利于對語言改變動因和方向性進行了解。32ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第32頁TheWatergateexample:TheWatergate:美國華盛頓特區(qū)一綜合大廈，1972年6月17日夜間共和黨爭取總統(tǒng)連任委員會相關(guān)人員潛入大廈內(nèi)民主黨全國委員會總部而被捕，暴露了共和黨政府在總統(tǒng)競選中非法活動，造成美國歷史上首次總統(tǒng)辭職(尼克松)。水門事件式丑聞，丑聞ThissuffixenjoysarichproductivityinAmericanEnglish.Wordsderivedfromthissourceinevitablytakeonaculturallypejorativeimplicationtoreferto“thedisclosuresofmisconductinhighplaces”(被揭露出來高層丑聞).33ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第33頁Tentativeconclusionsbasedonthefindings1)“Watergate”,asawordtakingonapejorativeimplicaturetorefertoanypoliticalscandalatthehighrank,willstayinEnglishforquitealongtime;2)Itsstructuralstatusinthelanguagebecomesratherstablethroughtherichderivationalprocessesithasundergoneinword-formation;3)Thesemanticimplicatureithaswillstaywiththewordforquitealongtime.34ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第34頁1.5CultureinlanguageteachingclassroomTherelationshipbetweencultureandlanguageteachingThreeobjectivesforustoteachcultureinourlanguageclass:1)Togetstudentsfamiliarwithculturaldifferences;2)Tohelpstudentstranscendtheirowncultureandseethingsasthemembersofthetargetculturewill;3)Toemphasizetheinseparabilityofunderstandinglanguageandunderstandingculturethroughvariousclassroompractices.35ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第35頁Questionstoponder1.WhatisthemainideaoftheSapir-WhorfHypothesis?

Whatisyourcomment?2.MakeananalysisontheinterplaybetweenLanguageandculture.36ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第36頁2.LanguageandSocietyLanguageisnotalwaysusedtoexchangeinformationasisgenerallyassumed,butratheritissometimesusedtofulfillanimportantsocialfunction–tomaintainsocialrelationshipbetweenpeople.37ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第37頁Howdoeslanguagerelatetosociety?LinguisticsasaMONISTICorAUTONOMOUSPURSUITofanindependentscience一元性或自治性LinguisticsasaDUALISTICinquiry二元性E.g你——您tu——vous38ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第38頁Usersofthesamelanguageinasenseallspeakdifferently.Whateachofthemchoosestouseisinpartdeterminedbyone’ssocialbackground.

Whenwespeakwecannotavoidgivingourlistenerscluesaboutouroriginandourbackground.Thesocialenvironmentcanalsobereflectedinlanguage,andcanoftenhaveaneffectonthestructureandthevocabulary.Forexample,asociety'skinshipsystemisgenerallyreflectedinitskinshipvocabulary.39ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第39頁40ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第40頁41ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第41頁AsituationallyandsociallyvariationistperspectiveAnappropriatelanguageuseinanysocialinteractionnotonlyhassomethingtodowithstructuralrules,butalsoinvolvessomesociallyinstitutionalizednormsinusage.Thechoiceofoneformoveranotherisbothstylisticallyandsociallygoverned.42ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第42頁Amaximinsociolinguistics:“Youarewhatyousay.”(爾即爾所言)Somesocialfactorsthatinfluenceourlanguagebehaviourinasocialcontext:1)class;2)gender;3)age;4)ethnicidentity;5)educationbackground;6)occupation;7)religiousbeliefWilliamLabov(拉波夫):afamoussociolinguistHeconductedasurveyatseveraldepartmentsintheCityofNewYorkinthemiddleof1960s.43ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第43頁Theobjectiveofhissurveywastoexaminetherelationshipbetweenspeakers’socialstatusandtheirphonologicalVARIATIONS.TheSocialStratificationofEnglishinNewYorkCity(1966)《紐約英語社會階層性》Labovexplicitlydelineatedthepatternsofstratificationbyclassandstyleandsuccessfullyintroducedclassasanindispensablesociolinguisticvariable.調(diào)查紐約市內(nèi)不一樣階層人說英語時使用元音后[r]音情況（保留還是脫落）。元音后[r]音保留被認為是社會中上層人士說話標(biāo)志。44ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第44頁Social-classdialect,orsociolect,referstothelinguisticvarietycharacteristicofaparticularsocialclass.Socialdialecthastodowithseparationbroughtaboutbydifferentsocialconditions.45ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第45頁Upperclass:America,cake,helping,ice,lavatory,lookingglass,pudding,relatives,rich,Royalties,scent,scurf,sick,sofa,spectacles,writingpaperLowerclass:theStates,pastry,portion,ice-cream,toilet,mirror,dessert,relations,wealthy,Royals,perfume,dandruff,ill,settee,glasses,notepaper46ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第46頁SpeakerA SpeakerBIdidityesterday. Idoneityesterday.Hehasn’tgotit. Heain’tgotit.Itwasshethatsaidit. Itwasherwhatsaidit.WhenwelookatthelanguageusedbytwospeakersAandB,wecanestimateroughlytheirrelativesocialstatus.47ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第47頁InBritain,accent=markerofstatusRP:anon-localizedformofpronunciation,referstotheparticularwayofpronouncingstandardEnglish,anindicatorofapublicschooleducationandthusahighsocialstatusonthepartofthespeaker.EE:EstuaryEnglish,commonlyusedbyeducatedpeopleintheregionaroundLondon.LessrigidthanRPbutmorestandardthanCockney.Cockney:lowerclassdialectofEastLondon,considerednon-standardbyeducatedpeople.48ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第48頁Varietiesrelatedtotheuserarenormallyknownasdialectsandvarietiesrelatedtouseasregisters.49ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第49頁Regionaldialectsarelinguisticvarietiesusedbypeoplelivingindifferentregions.Regionaldialectboundariesoftencoincidewithgeographicalbarrierssuchasmountains,rivers,orswamps.

English

ScottishItneedswashingItneedswashed50ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第50頁Idiolectisapersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombineselementsregardingregional,social,gender,andagevariations.Standarddialect:Sociallyprestigiousdialect.Bythegovernment,massmedia,schools.Anymembercanpossiblyuse.Basedonaselectedvariety.Notacquirednaturally,superimposed.e.g.普通話(Mandarin)

51ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第51頁LanguageandGender

Differencesbetweenwomenandmenhavealwaysbeenatopicofinteresttothehumanspecies.

52ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第52頁ThereexistsaWOMENREGISTER.Itsfeaturesinclude1)womenusemore“fancy”colorterms;mauve,beige,aquamarine,lavender,magentaImagineamanandawomanbothlookingatthesamewall,paintedapinkishshadeofpurple.Thewomanmaysay:Thewallismauve.53ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第53頁Ifthemanshouldsaytheabovesentence,onemightwellconcludehewasimitatingawomansarcastically,orwasahomosexual,oraninteriordecorator.54ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第54頁2)womenuselesspowerfulcursewords(少用Goddamnit!Damn!Shit!Fuckyou!慣用Oh,dear!Goodnessme!);a.Ohdear,you'veputthepeanutbutterintherefrigeratoragain.b.Shit,you'veputthepeanutbutterintherefrigeratoragain.55ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第55頁3)womenusemoreintensifierssuchasterrible,awful,sogood,suchfun,exquisite,lovely,divine,precious,adorable,darling,fantastic.(Neutralonesaregreat,terrific,cool,neat)InChapterIIIinJaneAusten’snovel,PrideandPrejudice,MrsBennet,excitedafterparticipatinginaparty,talkedtoherhusbandaboutMr.Bingleyasfollows:56ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第56頁Oh!MydearMr.Bennet,wehavehadamost

excellentball.…Janewasso

admired.Everybodysaidhowwellshelooked.Mr.Bingleythoughtherquite

beautiful,…Iwassovexedtoseehimstandupwithher.…Iamquitedelightedwithhim.Heissoexcessivelyhandsome!…[Mr.Darcy]isamostdisagreeable,horridman.Sohighandsoconceitedthattherewasnoenduringhim!Hewalkedhere,andhewalkedthere,fancyinghimselfsoverygreat!Nothandsomeenoughtodancewith.57ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第57頁Wife:Youalwaysleaveyourpapersabout,dear!Husband:Really?Didn’tIputtheminplaceyesterday?Inasense,theoveruseofthewordsofabsolutenessorextremitymaycausechangesinthemeaningofawordatleastintheeyeofaman.58ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第58頁4)womenusemoretagquestions(Johnishere,isn’tit?);5)womenusemorestatementquestions(Dinnerwillbereadyatseveno’clock?);6)women’slinguisticbehaviourismoreindirectandmorepolitethanmen’s59ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第59頁Thesedifferencesinlanguageusearebroughtaboutbynothinglessthanwomen’splaceinsociety.Linguisticsexism語言性別歧視現(xiàn)象許多職業(yè)名稱如doctor,professor,engineer等，人們習(xí)慣于把它們跟男性聯(lián)絡(luò)在一起，若要指稱女性，往往要加上woman一詞，如womandoctor。還有一些名稱含有男性語素man，如chairman,congressman,spokesman,salesman等，也用來指女性。Man作為mankind同義詞指人類，男女性都包含在內(nèi)。與之相呼應(yīng)，英語人稱代詞中，he(他)有時也可包含she(她)，比如：Aprofessorusuallyseeshisstudentsduringofficehours.60ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第60頁Typesoflinguisticsexism(fromKing1991)1.male-as-norm(womeninvisible)

Eachcandidateshouldincludethreecopiesofhisrésuméwiththeapplication.

2.irrelevantreferencetogender

Thatwomandentistisreallyexcellent.

3.

irrelevantreferencetophysicalappearanceordomesticrelationships

SusanDixon,abeautiful,green-eyedblonde,hasjustenteredherfirstyearofmedicalschool.

4.

inappropriateformsofaddress

Heyhoney!What'swrong?

61ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第61頁Halliday:RegisterLvariesasitsfunctionvaries;itdiffersindifferentsituations.ThetypeofLwhichisselectedasappropriatetothetypeofsituationisaregister.62ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第62頁Fieldofdiscourse(話語范圍):whatisgoingon,purposeandsubject-matterofcommunication,why,whatTechnicalvs.non-technicalTenorofdiscourse（話語基調(diào)）:theroleofrelationshipinthesituation,who,towhomThelevelofformalityModeofdiscourse（話語方式）:themeansofcommunication,howAlectureonbiology63ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第63頁MartinJoos:DegreeofformalityFrozenFormalConsultativeCasualIntimateFormal<>Informal64ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第64頁Visitorswouldmaketheirwayatoncetotheupperfloorbywayofthestaircase.(frozen)Visitorsshouldgoupthestairsatonce.(formal)Wouldyoumindgoingupstairsplease?(consultative)Timeyouallwentupstairsnow.(casual)Upyougo,Chaps!(intimate)65ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第65頁Whatshouldweknowmoreaboutsociolinguistics?Asociolinguisticstudyofsociety(macrosociolinguistics)andasociolinguisticstudyoflanguage(Microsociolinguistics):Ifwewanttoknowmoreaboutagivensocietyorcommunitybyexaminingthelinguisticbehaviourofitsmembers,wearedoingasociolinguisticstudyofsociety.Thatis,wearedoingsociolinguisticsatamacrolevelofinvestigation.Topicsofstudymayincludebilingualismormultilingualism,languageattitudes,languagechoice,languagemaintenanceandshift,languageplanningandstandardization,vernacularlanguageeducation.66ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第66頁Ifwewanttoknowmoreaboutsomelinguisticvariationsinlanguageusebyturningtopotentialsocioculturalfactorsforadescriptionandexplanation,wearedoingasociolinguisticstudyoflanguage.Weareinterestedinexaminingmicrolinguisticphenomenasuchasstructuralvariants,addressforms(稱呼語),genderdifferences,discourseanalysis,Pidgin(皮欽語)andCreole(克里奧爾語)languagesandothermorelanguage-relatedissues.67ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第67頁皮欽語是在殖民時期誕生。當(dāng)歐洲商人、水手、傳教士涉足亞洲、非洲、美洲、大洋州口岸與當(dāng)?shù)厝舜蚪坏罆r，因為彼此語言不通，就把兩種語言成份混合在一起使用，以到達溝通目標(biāo)。皮欽語大多以英語、法語、葡語等某一歐洲語言為基礎(chǔ)，把語法規(guī)則大大地簡化，沒有性、數(shù)、格等改變和波折、派生等詞形。說話人借助于有限詞語和簡單詞序來指稱事物或傳遞指令。皮欽語生長過程與社會變遷息息相關(guān)，它們命運取決于交際環(huán)境需要。有些皮欽語如17世紀至19世紀在我國南方沿海地域流行“洋涇浜”英語逐步消失了。有些皮欽語則穩(wěn)定了下來，詞匯和語法伎倆豐富了起來，擴大了使用范圍和表示功效。皮欽語可成為人們第二語言，也可發(fā)展成為克里奧爾語。當(dāng)某一地域人們把皮欽語傳授給后代，變?yōu)樗麄兡刚Z時，皮欽語就實現(xiàn)了克里奧爾化。68ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第68頁Bilingualism——twolanguagesareincontact.Thiscontactmayleadtointerference.Pidgin,Creole,diglossia69ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第69頁Pidgin:notanativelanguageofanyone.learnedinformallyincontact.usedesp.astradelanguage.involvesthemixtureoftwoormoreLs.Eg.NigerianPidginEnglish;VietnamesePidginFrench;NewGuineaPidginGerman,etc.70ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第70頁上海話中洋涇浜英語“蹩腳”（BILGE，船底污水，引申為骯臟、下三濫、劣質(zhì)）“大興”（DASHY，浮華，華而不實，引申為假、冒牌、劣質(zhì)）“骯三”（ONSALE，二手貨賤賣，引申為垃圾貨、形容人品質(zhì)低劣）“癟三”（BEGSIR，乞丐先生，用來形容叫花子、難民、逃荒者等各式窮人，后引申為最廣泛罵人用語之一。“赤佬”是英語“CHEAT”（坑騙）和漢字“佬”混生詞語，一個魯迅時代最流行洋涇浜俚語（隱語）。71ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第71頁Frompidginto

creolesAsaresultofintermarriage,thepidginisspokenathomeandlearnedbychildrenasamothertongue.Pidginisnotjustacontactlanguagewithlimitedsocialfunctions,butcandealwithmore.Eg.HaitianCreole,HawaiianCreoleEnglish72ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第72頁Diglossia:Twodistinctvarietiesofthesamelanguageareused,sidebyside,fortwodifferentsetsoffunctions.Switzerland:HighGermanasthestandard(public,official)SwissGermanasthevernacular(informal,daily)73ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety第73頁Code-Switching:

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