微觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)課件中英文

ThinkingLikeanEconomist

像經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家一樣思考

Chapter2ThinkingLikeanEconomist

像經(jīng)1EveryfieldofstudyhasitsownterminologyMathematicsaxiomsintegralsvectorspacesPsychologyegoidcognitivedissonanceLawtortsvenuesPromissoryestoppelEveryfieldofstudyhasitso2每個(gè)研究領(lǐng)域都有自己的語(yǔ)言數(shù)學(xué)公理積分向量空間心理學(xué)自我本我認(rèn)知的不一致性法律侵權(quán)行為案發(fā)現(xiàn)場(chǎng)約定的禁止翻供每個(gè)研究領(lǐng)域都有自己的語(yǔ)言數(shù)學(xué)公理積分向量空間心理學(xué)自我本我3EveryfieldofstudyhasitsownterminologyEconomicsSupplyDemandElasticityConsumerSurplusComparativeadvantageOpportunitycostDeadweightlossEveryfieldofstudyhasitso4每個(gè)研究領(lǐng)域都有自己的語(yǔ)言經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)供給需求彈性消費(fèi)者剩余比較優(yōu)勢(shì)機(jī)會(huì)成本無(wú)謂損失每個(gè)研究領(lǐng)域都有自己的語(yǔ)言經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)供給需求彈性消費(fèi)者剩余比較優(yōu)5Economicstrainsyouto....Thinkintermsofalternatives.Evaluatethecostofindividualandsocialchoices.Examineandunderstandhowcertaineventsandissuesarerelated.Economicstrainsyouto....6經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)訓(xùn)練你....從不同的角度思考問(wèn)題。評(píng)估個(gè)人和社會(huì)選擇的成本。檢查和理解一些事件和問(wèn)題是如何相互關(guān)聯(lián)的。經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)訓(xùn)練你....從不同的角度思考問(wèn)題。7TheEconomistasaScientist

作為科學(xué)家的經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家Theeconomicwayofthinking...經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)思考方法…Involvesthinkinganalytically

and

objectively.

客觀地分析與思考。Makesuseofthe

scientificmethod.

利用科學(xué)的方法。TheEconomistasaScientist

作8TheScientificMethodUsesabstractmodelstohelpexplainhowacomplex,realworldoperates.

Developstheories,collects,andanalyzesdatatoprovethetheories.Observation,TheoryandMoreObservation!TheScientificMethodUsesabst9科學(xué)方法利用抽象的模型幫助解釋復(fù)雜的真實(shí)世界如何運(yùn)行。

形成理論，收集并分析數(shù)據(jù)來(lái)驗(yàn)證理論。觀察,理論，更多的觀察科學(xué)方法利用抽象的模型幫助解釋復(fù)雜的真實(shí)世界如何運(yùn)行。

觀察10TheRoleofAssumptions

Economistsmakeassumptionsinordertomaketheworldeasiertounderstand.Theartinscientificthinkingisdecidingwhichassumptionstomake.Economistsusedifferentassumptionstoanswerdifferentquestions.TheRoleofAssumptionsEconom11假設(shè)的作用為了使這個(gè)世界更容易理解，經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家做一些假設(shè)。

科學(xué)思考的藝術(shù)就是決定作出什么樣的假設(shè)。

經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家利用不同的假設(shè)來(lái)回答不同的問(wèn)題。假設(shè)的作用為了使這個(gè)世界更容易理解，經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家做一些假設(shè)。12TheEconomicWayofThinkingIncludesdevelopingabstractmodelsfromtheoriesandthe

analysisofthemodels.Usestwoapproaches:Descriptive(reportingfacts,etc.)Analytical(abstractreasoning)TheEconomicWayofThinkingIn13經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)思考方法利用理論建立抽象的模型，然后進(jìn)一步分析模型。利用兩種方法:描述性的方法(報(bào)告實(shí)情等)分析性的方法

(抽象推理)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)思考方法利用理論建立抽象的模型，然后進(jìn)一步分析模型。描14EconomicModels

EconomistsusemodelstosimplifyrealityinordertoimproveourunderstandingoftheworldTwoofthemostbasiceconomicmodelsinclude:TheCircularFlowModelTheProductionPossibilitiesFrontierEconomicModelsEconomistsuse15經(jīng)濟(jì)模型經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家利用模型來(lái)簡(jiǎn)化真實(shí)世界，使我們更好地理解這個(gè)世界。

兩個(gè)最基本的經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)模型是：循環(huán)流向圖生產(chǎn)可能性邊界經(jīng)濟(jì)模型經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家利用模型來(lái)簡(jiǎn)化真實(shí)世界，使我們更好地理解這16TheCircular-FlowModel

經(jīng)濟(jì)循環(huán)流向圖The

circular-flowmodel

isasimplewaytovisuallyshowtheeconomictransactionsthatoccurbetweenhouseholdsandfirmsintheeconomy.循環(huán)流向圖——一個(gè)直觀地說(shuō)明一個(gè)經(jīng)濟(jì)體內(nèi)家庭和企業(yè)之間的經(jīng)濟(jì)交易行為的簡(jiǎn)單方式。TheCircular-FlowModel

經(jīng)濟(jì)循環(huán)流向17TheCircular-FlowDiagramFirmsHouseholdsMarketforFactorsofProductionMarketforGoodsandServicesSpendingRevenueWages,rent,andprofitIncomeGoods&ServicessoldGoods&ServicesboughtLabor,land,andcapitalInputsforproductionTheCircular-FlowDiagramFirms18經(jīng)濟(jì)循環(huán)圖企業(yè)家庭生產(chǎn)要素市場(chǎng)物品與勞務(wù)市場(chǎng)支出收入工資、租金和利潤(rùn)收入銷(xiāo)售商品和服務(wù)購(gòu)買(mǎi)商品和服務(wù)勞動(dòng)、土地和資本生產(chǎn)投入經(jīng)濟(jì)循環(huán)圖企業(yè)家庭生產(chǎn)要素物品與勞務(wù)支出收入工資、租金收入銷(xiāo)19Figure1TheCircularFlowCopyright?2004South-WesternSpendingGoodsandservicesboughtRevenueGoodsandservicessoldLabor,land,andcapitalIncome

=Flowofinputs

andoutputs

=FlowofdollarsFactorsofproductionWages,rent,andprofit

FIRMSProduceandsellgoodsandservicesHireandusefactorsofproduction

BuyandconsumegoodsandservicesOwnandsellfactorsofproductionHOUSEHOLDS

HouseholdssellFirmsbuyMARKETSFORFACTORSOFPRODUCTION

FirmssellHouseholdsbuyMARKETSFORGOODSANDSERVICESFigure1TheCircularFlowCopy20TheCircular-FlowDiagramHouseholds

BuyandconsumegoodsandservicesOwnandsellfactorsofproductionFirms

ProduceandsellgoodsandservicesHireandusefactorsofproductionTheCircular-FlowDiagramHouse21經(jīng)濟(jì)循環(huán)流向圖家庭

購(gòu)買(mǎi)并消費(fèi)物品與勞務(wù)

擁有并出售所有生產(chǎn)要素企業(yè)

生產(chǎn)并出售物品與勞務(wù)

雇傭并使用生產(chǎn)要素經(jīng)濟(jì)循環(huán)流向圖家庭企業(yè)22TheCircular-FlowDiagramMarketsforFactorsofProduction

HouseholdssellFirmsbuyMarketsforGoods&Services

FirmssellHouseholdsbuyTheCircular-FlowDiagramMarke23經(jīng)濟(jì)循環(huán)圖生產(chǎn)要素市場(chǎng)

家庭出售

企業(yè)購(gòu)買(mǎi)物品與勞務(wù)市場(chǎng)

企業(yè)出售

家庭購(gòu)買(mǎi)經(jīng)濟(jì)循環(huán)圖生產(chǎn)要素市場(chǎng)物品與勞務(wù)市場(chǎng)24TheCircular-FlowDiagram

經(jīng)濟(jì)循環(huán)圖FactorsofProduction生產(chǎn)要素

Inputsusedtoproducegoodsandservices

用于生產(chǎn)物品與勞務(wù)的投入Land,labor,andcapital

土地、勞動(dòng)和資本TheCircular-FlowDiagram

經(jīng)濟(jì)循環(huán)25TheProductionPossibilitiesFrontierTheproductionpossibilitiesfrontierisagraphshowingthevariouscombinationsofoutputthattheeconomycanpossiblyproducegiventheavailablefactorsofproductionandtechnology.TheProductionPossibilitiesF26生產(chǎn)可能性邊界生產(chǎn)可能性邊界——表示一個(gè)經(jīng)濟(jì)在可得到的生產(chǎn)要素與生產(chǎn)技術(shù)既定時(shí)所能生產(chǎn)的產(chǎn)量的各種組合的圖形。生產(chǎn)可能性邊界生產(chǎn)可能性邊界——表示一個(gè)經(jīng)濟(jì)在可得到的生產(chǎn)27TheProductionPossibilitiesFrontier

生產(chǎn)可能性邊界QuantityofComputersProducedQuantityofCarsProduced3,0001,0002,0002,200A70060030001,000BCDProductionpossibilitiesfrontier電腦產(chǎn)量汽車(chē)產(chǎn)量生產(chǎn)可能性邊界TheProductionPossibilitiesF28ConceptsIllustratedbytheProductionPossibilitiesFrontierEfficiencyTradeoffsOpportunityCostEconomicGrowthConceptsIllustratedbythePr29生產(chǎn)可能性邊界闡明的概念效率權(quán)衡取舍機(jī)會(huì)成本經(jīng)濟(jì)增長(zhǎng)生產(chǎn)可能性邊界闡明的概念效率304,000TheProduction

PossibilitiesFrontierQuantityofComputersProducedQuantityofCarsProduced3,0002,000A70001,000E2,100750Anoutwardshiftintheproductionpossibilitiesfrontier4,000TheProduction

Possibili314,000生產(chǎn)可能性邊界計(jì)算機(jī)產(chǎn)量汽車(chē)產(chǎn)量3,0002,000A70001,000E2,100750生產(chǎn)可能性邊界向外移動(dòng)4,000生產(chǎn)可能性邊界計(jì)算機(jī)產(chǎn)量汽車(chē)產(chǎn)量3,0002,0032MicroeconomicsandMacroeconomicsMicroeconomics

focusesontheindividualpartsoftheeconomy.HowhouseholdsandfirmsmakedecisionsandhowtheyinteractinspecificmarketsMacroeconomics

looksattheeconomyasawhole.Howthemarkets,asawhole,interactatthenationallevel.

MicroeconomicsandMacroeconom33微觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)與宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)微觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)

的研究對(duì)象是經(jīng)濟(jì)中的個(gè)體。家庭和企業(yè)如何作出決策，以及他們?nèi)绾卧谔囟ㄊ袌?chǎng)上相互交易。宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)

研究經(jīng)濟(jì)總體現(xiàn)象。從總體上看，各種市場(chǎng)在國(guó)家水平上如何相互影響。

微觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)與宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)微觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)的研究對(duì)象是經(jīng)濟(jì)中的個(gè)體。34TwoRolesofEconomists

經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家的兩個(gè)角色Whentheyaretryingtoexplaintheworld,theyare

scientists.

當(dāng)他們努力去解釋世界時(shí)，他們是科學(xué)家。Whentheyaretryingtochangetheworld,theyare

policymakers.

當(dāng)他們想要改變世界時(shí)，他們是政策顧問(wèn)。TwoRolesofEconomists

經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家的兩35PositiveversusNormativeAnalysisPositivestatements

arestatementsthatdescribetheworldasitis.

CalleddescriptiveanalysisNormativestatements

arestatementsabouthowtheworldshouldbe.CalledprescriptiveanalysisPositiveversusNormativeAnal36實(shí)證分析與規(guī)范分析實(shí)證表述

是企圖描述世界是什么的觀點(diǎn)。被稱為描述性分析。規(guī)范表述

是企圖描述世界應(yīng)該如何運(yùn)行的觀點(diǎn)。被稱為命令性分析。實(shí)證分析與規(guī)范分析實(shí)證表述是企圖描述世界是什么的觀點(diǎn)。37??PositiveorNormativeStatements?

實(shí)證性還是規(guī)范性表述？Anincreaseintheminimumwagewillcauseadecreaseinemploymentamongtheleast-skilled.提高最低工資水平會(huì)導(dǎo)致最低技能工人的就業(yè)減少。Positive實(shí)證性??PositiveorNormativeStatem38???PositiveorNormativeStatements?

實(shí)證性還是規(guī)范性表述？Higherfederalbudgetdeficitswillcauseinterestratestoincrease.較高的聯(lián)邦赤字水平會(huì)導(dǎo)致利率上升。Positive實(shí)證性???PositiveorNormativeState39????PositiveorNormativeStatements?

實(shí)證性還是規(guī)范性表述？Theincomegainsfromahigherminimumwageareworthmorethananyslightreductionsinemployment.提高最低工資水平得到的利益比由此帶來(lái)的稍微的就業(yè)減少造成的損失大Positive規(guī)范性????PositiveorNormativeStat40???PositiveorNormativeStatements?

實(shí)證性還是規(guī)范性表述？Stategovernmentsshouldbeallowedtocollectfromtobaccocompaniesthecostsoftreatingsmoking-relatedillnessesamongthepoor.應(yīng)該允許州政府向煙草公司收取費(fèi)用，用于治療窮人當(dāng)中與吸煙有關(guān)的疾病的費(fèi)用。Positive規(guī)范性???PositiveorNormativeState41EconomistsinWashington... ...serveasadvisersinthepolicymakingprocessofthethreebranchesofgovernment:LegislativeExecutiveJudicialEconomistsinWashington...42華盛頓的經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家... ...在以下三個(gè)政府部門(mén)的政策制定過(guò)程中充當(dāng)顧問(wèn)：立法行政司法華盛頓的經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家... ...在以下三個(gè)政府部門(mén)的43Economists

inWashingtonSomegovernmentagenciesthatcollecteconomicdataandmakeeconomicpolicy:DepartmentofCommerceBureauofLaborStatisticsCongressionalBudgetOfficeFederalReserveBoardEconomistsinWashingtonSomeg44華盛頓的經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家一些收集經(jīng)濟(jì)數(shù)據(jù)并制定經(jīng)濟(jì)政策的政府部門(mén):商務(wù)部勞工統(tǒng)計(jì)局國(guó)會(huì)預(yù)算辦公室聯(lián)邦儲(chǔ)備委員會(huì)華盛頓的經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家一些收集經(jīng)濟(jì)數(shù)據(jù)并制定經(jīng)濟(jì)政策的政府部門(mén):45WhyEconomistsDisagree

為什么經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家意見(jiàn)分歧Theymaydisagreeontheoriesabouthowtheworldworks.

對(duì)關(guān)于世界如何運(yùn)行的理論的正確性看法不同。Theymayholddifferentvaluesand,thus,differentnormativeviews.

他們可能有不同的價(jià)值觀，因此就有不同的規(guī)范性觀點(diǎn)。WhyEconomistsDisagree

為什么經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)46Table2TenPropositionsaboutWhichMostEconomistsAgreeTable2TenPropositionsabout47大多數(shù)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家一直同意的10個(gè)主張

主張以及經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家同意的百分比1.租金上限減少了可得到的住房數(shù)量和質(zhì)量。（93％）2.關(guān)稅和進(jìn)口配額通常降低了普遍的經(jīng)濟(jì)福利。（93％）3.有伸縮性和浮動(dòng)性的匯率提供了一種有效的國(guó)際貨幣協(xié)定。（90％）4.財(cái)政政策[例如，減稅和（或）增加政府支出]對(duì)低于充分就業(yè)的經(jīng)濟(jì)有重要的刺激效應(yīng)。（90％）5.如果要平衡聯(lián)邦預(yù)算，應(yīng)該在經(jīng)濟(jì)周期中而不是每年中來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)。（85％）6.現(xiàn)金轉(zhuǎn)移支付使領(lǐng)取者福利的增加大于等量現(xiàn)金的實(shí)物轉(zhuǎn)移支付。（84％）7.巨額聯(lián)邦預(yù)算赤字對(duì)經(jīng)濟(jì)有不利影響。（83％）8.最低工資增加了年輕人和不熟練工人中的失業(yè)。（79％）9.政府應(yīng)該按“負(fù)所得稅”的思路重建福利制度。（79％）10.排污稅和可交易的污染許可證作為控制污染的方法優(yōu)于實(shí)行污染上限。（78％）大多數(shù)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家一直同意的10個(gè)主張

主張以及經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家同意的百48SummaryEconomiststrytoaddresstheirsubjectswithascientist’sobjectivity.Theymakeappropriateassumptionsandbuildsimplifiedmodelsinordertounderstandtheworldaroundthem.Twosimpleeconomicmodelsarethecircular-flowdiagramandtheproductionpossibilitiesfrontier.SummaryEconomiststrytoaddre49小結(jié)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家像科學(xué)家一樣客觀地來(lái)研究他們的學(xué)科。為了理解周?chē)氖澜纾?jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家進(jìn)行適當(dāng)?shù)募僭O(shè)并建立簡(jiǎn)單的模型。兩個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單的經(jīng)濟(jì)模型是經(jīng)濟(jì)循環(huán)圖和生產(chǎn)可能性邊界。小結(jié)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家像科學(xué)家一樣客觀地來(lái)研究他們的學(xué)科。50SummaryThefieldofeconomicsisdividedintotwosubfields:microeconomicsandmacroeconomics.Microeconomistsstudydecisionmakingbyhouseholdsandfirmsinthemarketplace.

Macroeconomistsstudytheforcesandtrendsthataffecttheeconomyasawhole.SummaryThefieldofeconomics51小結(jié)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)分為兩個(gè)領(lǐng)域：微觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)和宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)。微觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家研究市場(chǎng)中的家庭和企業(yè)所作的決策。宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家研究影響整體經(jīng)濟(jì)的力量和趨勢(shì)。小結(jié)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)分為兩個(gè)領(lǐng)域：微觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)和宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)。52SummaryEconomicsreliesonbothpositiveandnormativeanalysis.Positivestatementsisanassertionabouthowtheworld“is”。normativestatementsisanassertionabouthowtheworld“oughttobe”.Wheneconomistsmakenormativestatements,theyareactingmoreaspolicyadvisorsthanscientists.SummaryEconomicsreliesonbot53小結(jié)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)依賴實(shí)證分析和規(guī)范分析。實(shí)證表述是關(guān)于世界是什么的論斷。規(guī)范表述是關(guān)于世界應(yīng)該是什么的論斷。當(dāng)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家做規(guī)范性表述時(shí)，與其說(shuō)其是科學(xué)家，不如說(shuō)其是政策顧問(wèn)。小結(jié)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)依賴實(shí)證分析和規(guī)范分析。54SummaryEconomistswhoadvisepolicymakersmayofferconflictingadviceeitherbecauseofdifferencesinscientificjudgmentsorbecauseofdifferencesinvaluesAtothertimes,economistsareunitedintheadvicetheyoffer,butpolicymakersmaychoosetoignoreit.SummaryEconomistswhoadvisep55小結(jié)給政策制定者提供建議的經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家提出相互沖突的建議，這是因?yàn)榭茖W(xué)判斷的不同，或者是價(jià)值觀的不同。在其他一些時(shí)候，經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家在他們提供的建議上相互一直，但是政策制訂者可能選擇不采納。小結(jié)給政策制定者提供建議的經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家提出相互沖突的建議，這是因56GraphicalReviewGraphicalReview57Government(41%)Other(4%)Individuals(23%)PrivateInsurers(32%)(a)PieChartProductivityIndex(farmoutputperhouroflabor,1977=100)100806040200160120140(c)Time-SeriesGraph195019601970198019901996Value(inbillionsofdollars)GeneralElectric($126billion)100806040200120$140Exxon($99billion)(b)BarGraphIBM($68billion)GeneralMotors($39billion)Figure2A-1Government(41%)Other(4%)Indi58GradePointAverage2.52.01.51.00.540StudyTime(hoursperweek)3.03.54.005101520253035AlfredE.(5,2.0)AlbertE.(25,3.5)Figure2A-2GradePointAverage2.52.01.51.0059PriceofNovels5432130QuantityofNovelsPurchased678910$110510152025Demand,D1(5,$10)(9,$9)(13,$8)(17,$7)(21,$6)(25,$5)Figure2A-3PriceofNovels5432130Quantityo60PriceofNovels5432130QuantityofNovelsPurchased678910$1105131610152025(13,$8)(16,$8)D3(income=$20,000)D1(income=$30,000)D2(income=$40,000)(10,$8)Whenincomeincreases,thedemandcurveshiftstotheright.Whenincomedecreases,thedemandcurveshiftstotheleft.Figure2A-4PriceofNovels5432130Quantityo61PriceofNovels5432130QuantityofNovelsPurchased678910$1105211310152025Demand,

D1(13,$8)(21,$6)6285

222121358Figure2A-5PriceofNovels5432130Quantityo62RiskofCancerNumberofLightersinHouse0Figure2A-6RiskofCancerNumberofLighter63ViolentCrimes(per1,000people)PoliceOfficers(per1,000people)0Figure2A-7ViolentCrimes(per1,000people64ThinkingLikeanEconomist

像經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家一樣思考

Chapter2ThinkingLikeanEconomist

像經(jīng)65EveryfieldofstudyhasitsownterminologyMathematicsaxiomsintegralsvectorspacesPsychologyegoidcognitivedissonanceLawtortsvenuesPromissoryestoppelEveryfieldofstudyhasitso66每個(gè)研究領(lǐng)域都有自己的語(yǔ)言數(shù)學(xué)公理積分向量空間心理學(xué)自我本我認(rèn)知的不一致性法律侵權(quán)行為案發(fā)現(xiàn)場(chǎng)約定的禁止翻供每個(gè)研究領(lǐng)域都有自己的語(yǔ)言數(shù)學(xué)公理積分向量空間心理學(xué)自我本我67EveryfieldofstudyhasitsownterminologyEconomicsSupplyDemandElasticityConsumerSurplusComparativeadvantageOpportunitycostDeadweightlossEveryfieldofstudyhasitso68每個(gè)研究領(lǐng)域都有自己的語(yǔ)言經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)供給需求彈性消費(fèi)者剩余比較優(yōu)勢(shì)機(jī)會(huì)成本無(wú)謂損失每個(gè)研究領(lǐng)域都有自己的語(yǔ)言經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)供給需求彈性消費(fèi)者剩余比較優(yōu)69Economicstrainsyouto....Thinkintermsofalternatives.Evaluatethecostofindividualandsocialchoices.Examineandunderstandhowcertaineventsandissuesarerelated.Economicstrainsyouto....70經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)訓(xùn)練你....從不同的角度思考問(wèn)題。評(píng)估個(gè)人和社會(huì)選擇的成本。檢查和理解一些事件和問(wèn)題是如何相互關(guān)聯(lián)的。經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)訓(xùn)練你....從不同的角度思考問(wèn)題。71TheEconomistasaScientist

作為科學(xué)家的經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家Theeconomicwayofthinking...經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)思考方法…Involvesthinkinganalytically

and

objectively.

客觀地分析與思考。Makesuseofthe

scientificmethod.

利用科學(xué)的方法。TheEconomistasaScientist

作72TheScientificMethodUsesabstractmodelstohelpexplainhowacomplex,realworldoperates.

Developstheories,collects,andanalyzesdatatoprovethetheories.Observation,TheoryandMoreObservation!TheScientificMethodUsesabst73科學(xué)方法利用抽象的模型幫助解釋復(fù)雜的真實(shí)世界如何運(yùn)行。

形成理論，收集并分析數(shù)據(jù)來(lái)驗(yàn)證理論。觀察,理論，更多的觀察科學(xué)方法利用抽象的模型幫助解釋復(fù)雜的真實(shí)世界如何運(yùn)行。

觀察74TheRoleofAssumptions

Economistsmakeassumptionsinordertomaketheworldeasiertounderstand.Theartinscientificthinkingisdecidingwhichassumptionstomake.Economistsusedifferentassumptionstoanswerdifferentquestions.TheRoleofAssumptionsEconom75假設(shè)的作用為了使這個(gè)世界更容易理解，經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家做一些假設(shè)。

科學(xué)思考的藝術(shù)就是決定作出什么樣的假設(shè)。

經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家利用不同的假設(shè)來(lái)回答不同的問(wèn)題。假設(shè)的作用為了使這個(gè)世界更容易理解，經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家做一些假設(shè)。76TheEconomicWayofThinkingIncludesdevelopingabstractmodelsfromtheoriesandthe

analysisofthemodels.Usestwoapproaches:Descriptive(reportingfacts,etc.)Analytical(abstractreasoning)TheEconomicWayofThinkingIn77經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)思考方法利用理論建立抽象的模型，然后進(jìn)一步分析模型。利用兩種方法:描述性的方法(報(bào)告實(shí)情等)分析性的方法

(抽象推理)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)思考方法利用理論建立抽象的模型，然后進(jìn)一步分析模型。描78EconomicModels

EconomistsusemodelstosimplifyrealityinordertoimproveourunderstandingoftheworldTwoofthemostbasiceconomicmodelsinclude:TheCircularFlowModelTheProductionPossibilitiesFrontierEconomicModelsEconomistsuse79經(jīng)濟(jì)模型經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家利用模型來(lái)簡(jiǎn)化真實(shí)世界，使我們更好地理解這個(gè)世界。

兩個(gè)最基本的經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)模型是：循環(huán)流向圖生產(chǎn)可能性邊界經(jīng)濟(jì)模型經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家利用模型來(lái)簡(jiǎn)化真實(shí)世界，使我們更好地理解這80TheCircular-FlowModel

經(jīng)濟(jì)循環(huán)流向圖The

circular-flowmodel

isasimplewaytovisuallyshowtheeconomictransactionsthatoccurbetweenhouseholdsandfirmsintheeconomy.循環(huán)流向圖——一個(gè)直觀地說(shuō)明一個(gè)經(jīng)濟(jì)體內(nèi)家庭和企業(yè)之間的經(jīng)濟(jì)交易行為的簡(jiǎn)單方式。TheCircular-FlowModel

經(jīng)濟(jì)循環(huán)流向81TheCircular-FlowDiagramFirmsHouseholdsMarketforFactorsofProductionMarketforGoodsandServicesSpendingRevenueWages,rent,andprofitIncomeGoods&ServicessoldGoods&ServicesboughtLabor,land,andcapitalInputsforproductionTheCircular-FlowDiagramFirms82經(jīng)濟(jì)循環(huán)圖企業(yè)家庭生產(chǎn)要素市場(chǎng)物品與勞務(wù)市場(chǎng)支出收入工資、租金和利潤(rùn)收入銷(xiāo)售商品和服務(wù)購(gòu)買(mǎi)商品和服務(wù)勞動(dòng)、土地和資本生產(chǎn)投入經(jīng)濟(jì)循環(huán)圖企業(yè)家庭生產(chǎn)要素物品與勞務(wù)支出收入工資、租金收入銷(xiāo)83Figure1TheCircularFlowCopyright?2004South-WesternSpendingGoodsandservicesboughtRevenueGoodsandservicessoldLabor,land,andcapitalIncome

=Flowofinputs

andoutputs

=FlowofdollarsFactorsofproductionWages,rent,andprofit

FIRMSProduceandsellgoodsandservicesHireandusefactorsofproduction

BuyandconsumegoodsandservicesOwnandsellfactorsofproductionHOUSEHOLDS

HouseholdssellFirmsbuyMARKETSFORFACTORSOFPRODUCTION

FirmssellHouseholdsbuyMARKETSFORGOODSANDSERVICESFigure1TheCircularFlowCopy84TheCircular-FlowDiagramHouseholds

BuyandconsumegoodsandservicesOwnandsellfactorsofproductionFirms

ProduceandsellgoodsandservicesHireandusefactorsofproductionTheCircular-FlowDiagramHouse85經(jīng)濟(jì)循環(huán)流向圖家庭

購(gòu)買(mǎi)并消費(fèi)物品與勞務(wù)

擁有并出售所有生產(chǎn)要素企業(yè)

生產(chǎn)并出售物品與勞務(wù)

雇傭并使用生產(chǎn)要素經(jīng)濟(jì)循環(huán)流向圖家庭企業(yè)86TheCircular-FlowDiagramMarketsforFactorsofProduction

HouseholdssellFirmsbuyMarketsforGoods&Services

FirmssellHouseholdsbuyTheCircular-FlowDiagramMarke87經(jīng)濟(jì)循環(huán)圖生產(chǎn)要素市場(chǎng)

家庭出售

企業(yè)購(gòu)買(mǎi)物品與勞務(wù)市場(chǎng)

企業(yè)出售

家庭購(gòu)買(mǎi)經(jīng)濟(jì)循環(huán)圖生產(chǎn)要素市場(chǎng)物品與勞務(wù)市場(chǎng)88TheCircular-FlowDiagram

經(jīng)濟(jì)循環(huán)圖FactorsofProduction生產(chǎn)要素

Inputsusedtoproducegoodsandservices

用于生產(chǎn)物品與勞務(wù)的投入Land,labor,andcapital

土地、勞動(dòng)和資本TheCircular-FlowDiagram

經(jīng)濟(jì)循環(huán)89TheProductionPossibilitiesFrontierTheproductionpossibilitiesfrontierisagraphshowingthevariouscombinationsofoutputthattheeconomycanpossiblyproducegiventheavailablefactorsofproductionandtechnology.TheProductionPossibilitiesF90生產(chǎn)可能性邊界生產(chǎn)可能性邊界——表示一個(gè)經(jīng)濟(jì)在可得到的生產(chǎn)要素與生產(chǎn)技術(shù)既定時(shí)所能生產(chǎn)的產(chǎn)量的各種組合的圖形。生產(chǎn)可能性邊界生產(chǎn)可能性邊界——表示一個(gè)經(jīng)濟(jì)在可得到的生產(chǎn)91TheProductionPossibilitiesFrontier

生產(chǎn)可能性邊界QuantityofComputersProducedQuantityofCarsProduced3,0001,0002,0002,200A70060030001,000BCDProductionpossibilitiesfrontier電腦產(chǎn)量汽車(chē)產(chǎn)量生產(chǎn)可能性邊界TheProductionPossibilitiesF92ConceptsIllustratedbytheProductionPossibilitiesFrontierEfficiencyTradeoffsOpportunityCostEconomicGrowthConceptsIllustratedbythePr93生產(chǎn)可能性邊界闡明的概念效率權(quán)衡取舍機(jī)會(huì)成本經(jīng)濟(jì)增長(zhǎng)生產(chǎn)可能性邊界闡明的概念效率944,000TheProduction

PossibilitiesFrontierQuantityofComputersProducedQuantityofCarsProduced3,0002,000A70001,000E2,100750Anoutwardshiftintheproductionpossibilitiesfrontier4,000TheProduction

Possibili954,000生產(chǎn)可能性邊界計(jì)算機(jī)產(chǎn)量汽車(chē)產(chǎn)量3,0002,000A70001,000E2,100750生產(chǎn)可能性邊界向外移動(dòng)4,000生產(chǎn)可能性邊界計(jì)算機(jī)產(chǎn)量汽車(chē)產(chǎn)量3,0002,0096MicroeconomicsandMacroeconomicsMicroeconomics

focusesontheindividualpartsoftheeconomy.HowhouseholdsandfirmsmakedecisionsandhowtheyinteractinspecificmarketsMacroeconomics

looksattheeconomyasawhole.Howthemarkets,asawhole,interactatthenationallevel.

MicroeconomicsandMacroeconom97微觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)與宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)微觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)

的研究對(duì)象是經(jīng)濟(jì)中的個(gè)體。家庭和企業(yè)如何作出決策，以及他們?nèi)绾卧谔囟ㄊ袌?chǎng)上相互交易。宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)

研究經(jīng)濟(jì)總體現(xiàn)象。從總體上看，各種市場(chǎng)在國(guó)家水平上如何相互影響。

微觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)與宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)微觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)的研究對(duì)象是經(jīng)濟(jì)中的個(gè)體。98TwoRolesofEconomists

經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家的兩個(gè)角色Whentheyaretryingtoexplaintheworld,theyare

scientists.

當(dāng)他們努力去解釋世界時(shí)，他們是科學(xué)家。Whentheyaretryingtochangetheworld,theyare

policymakers.

當(dāng)他們想要改變世界時(shí)，他們是政策顧問(wèn)。TwoRolesofEconomists

經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家的兩99PositiveversusNormativeAnalysisPositivestatements

arestatementsthatdescribetheworldasitis.

CalleddescriptiveanalysisNormativestatements

arestatementsabouthowtheworldshouldbe.CalledprescriptiveanalysisPositiveversusNormativeAnal100實(shí)證分析與規(guī)范分析實(shí)證表述

是企圖描述世界是什么的觀點(diǎn)。被稱為描述性分析。規(guī)范表述

是企圖描述世界應(yīng)該如何運(yùn)行的觀點(diǎn)。被稱為命令性分析。實(shí)證分析與規(guī)范分析實(shí)證表述是企圖描述世界是什么的觀點(diǎn)。101??PositiveorNormativeStatements?

實(shí)證性還是規(guī)范性表述？Anincreaseintheminimumwagewillcauseadecreaseinemploymentamongtheleast-skilled.提高最低工資水平會(huì)導(dǎo)致最低技能工人的就業(yè)減少。Positive實(shí)證性??PositiveorNormativeStatem102???PositiveorNormativeStatements?

實(shí)證性還是規(guī)范性表述？Higherfederalbudgetdeficitswillcauseinterestratestoincrease.較高的聯(lián)邦赤字水平會(huì)導(dǎo)致利率上升。Positive實(shí)證性???PositiveorNormativeState103????PositiveorNormativeStatements?

實(shí)證性還是規(guī)范性表述？Theincomegainsfromahigherminimumwageareworthmorethananyslightreductionsinemployment.提高最低工資水平得到的利益比由此帶來(lái)的稍微的就業(yè)減少造成的損失大Positive規(guī)范性????PositiveorNormativeStat104???PositiveorNormativeStatements?

實(shí)證性還是規(guī)范性表述？Stategovernmentsshouldbeallowedtocollectfromtobaccocompaniesthecostsoftreatingsmoking-relatedillnessesamongthepoor.應(yīng)該允許州政府向煙草公司收取費(fèi)用，用于治療窮人當(dāng)中與吸煙有關(guān)的疾病的費(fèi)用。Positive規(guī)范性???PositiveorNormativeState105EconomistsinWashington... ...serveasadvisersinthepolicymakingprocessofthethreebranchesofgovernment:LegislativeExecutiveJudicialEconomistsinWashington...106華盛頓的經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家... ...在以下三個(gè)政府部門(mén)的政策制定過(guò)程中充當(dāng)顧問(wèn)：立法行政司法華盛頓的經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家... ...在以下三個(gè)政府部門(mén)的107Economists

inWashingtonSomegovernmentagenciesthatcollecteconomicdataandmakeeconomicpolicy:DepartmentofCommerceBureauofLaborStatisticsCongressionalBudgetOfficeFederalReserveBoardEconomistsinWashingtonSomeg108華盛頓的經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家一些收集經(jīng)濟(jì)數(shù)據(jù)并制定經(jīng)濟(jì)政策的政府部門(mén):商務(wù)部勞工統(tǒng)計(jì)局國(guó)會(huì)預(yù)算辦公室聯(lián)邦儲(chǔ)備委員會(huì)華盛頓的經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家一些收集經(jīng)濟(jì)數(shù)據(jù)并制定經(jīng)濟(jì)政策的政府部門(mén):109WhyEconomistsDisagree

為什么經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家意見(jiàn)分歧Theymaydisagreeontheoriesabouthowtheworldworks.

對(duì)關(guān)于世界如何運(yùn)行的理論的正確性看法不同。Theymayholddifferentvaluesand,thus,differentnormativeviews.

他們可能有不同的價(jià)值觀，因此就有不同的規(guī)范性觀點(diǎn)。WhyEconomistsDisagree

為什么經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)110Table2TenPropositionsaboutWhichMostEconomistsAgreeTable2TenPropositionsabout111大多數(shù)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家一直同意的10個(gè)主張

主張以及經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家同意的百分比1.租金上限減少了可得到的住房數(shù)量和質(zhì)量。（93％）2.關(guān)稅和進(jìn)口配額通常降低了普遍的經(jīng)濟(jì)福利。（93％）3.有伸縮性和浮動(dòng)性的匯率提供了一種有效的國(guó)際貨幣協(xié)定。（90％）4.財(cái)政政策[例如，減稅和（或）增加政府支出]對(duì)低于充分就業(yè)的經(jīng)濟(jì)有重要的刺激效應(yīng)。（90％）5.如果要平衡聯(lián)邦預(yù)算，應(yīng)該在經(jīng)濟(jì)周期中而不是每年中來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)。（85％）6.現(xiàn)金轉(zhuǎn)移支付使領(lǐng)取者福利的增加大于等量現(xiàn)金的實(shí)物轉(zhuǎn)移支付。（84％）7.巨額聯(lián)邦預(yù)算赤字對(duì)經(jīng)濟(jì)有不利影響。（83％）8.最低工資增加了年輕人和不熟練工人中的失業(yè)。（79％）9.政府應(yīng)該按“負(fù)所得稅”的思路重建福利制度。（79％）10.排污稅和可交易的污染許可證作為控制污染的方法優(yōu)于實(shí)行污染上限。（78％）大多數(shù)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家一直同意的10個(gè)主張

主張以及經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家同意的百112SummaryEconomiststrytoaddresstheirsubjectswithascientist’sobjectivity.Theymakeappropriateassumptionsandbuildsimplifiedmodelsinordertounderstandtheworldaroundthem.Twosimpleeconomicmodelsarethecircular-flowdiagramandtheproductionpossibilitiesfrontier.SummaryEconomiststrytoaddre113小結(jié)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家像科學(xué)家一樣客觀地來(lái)研究他們的學(xué)科。為了理解周?chē)氖澜?，?jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家進(jìn)行適當(dāng)?shù)募僭O(shè)并建立簡(jiǎn)單的模型。兩個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單的經(jīng)濟(jì)模型是經(jīng)濟(jì)循環(huán)圖和生產(chǎn)可能性邊界。小結(jié)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家像科學(xué)家一樣客觀地來(lái)研究他們的學(xué)科。114SummaryThefieldofeconomicsisdividedintotwosubfields:microeconomicsandmacroeconomics.Microeconomistsstudydecisionmakingbyhouseholdsandfirmsinthemarketplace.

Macroeconomistsstudytheforcesandtrendsthataffecttheeconomyasawhole.SummaryThefieldofeconomics115小結(jié)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)分為兩個(gè)領(lǐng)域：微觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)和宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)。微觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家研究市場(chǎng)中的家庭和企業(yè)所作的決策。宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家研究影響整體經(jīng)濟(jì)的力量和趨勢(shì)。小結(jié)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)分為兩個(gè)領(lǐng)域：微觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)和宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)。116SummaryEconomicsreliesonbothpositivea