自考-現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)-每章要點(diǎn)總結(jié)(希望對大家有幫助-我也是學(xué)生-這是由老師總的-我將PPT轉(zhuǎn)為WORD)

自考-現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)-每章要點(diǎn)總結(jié)(希望對大家有幫助-我也是學(xué)生-這是由老師總的-我將PPT轉(zhuǎn)為WORD)自考-現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)-每章要點(diǎn)總結(jié)(希望對大家有幫助-我也是學(xué)生-這是由老師總的-我將PPT轉(zhuǎn)為WORD)自考-現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)-每章要點(diǎn)總結(jié)(希望對大家有幫助-我也是學(xué)生-這是由老師總的-我將PPT轉(zhuǎn)為WORD)自考-現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)-每章要點(diǎn)總結(jié)(希望對大家有幫助-我也是學(xué)生-這是由老師總的-我將PPT轉(zhuǎn)為WORD)編制僅供參考審核批準(zhǔn)生效日期地址：電話：傳真:郵編:第一章

緒論1/Whatislinguistics?什么是語言學(xué)？Linguistics

isgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.2/Thescopeoflinguistics語言學(xué)的研究范疇Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalled

generallinguistics.(普通語言學(xué))Thestudyofsounds,whichareusedinlinguisticcommunication,iscalled

phonetics.（語音學(xué)）

Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalled

phonology.（音系學(xué)）

Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsarecalled

morphology.（形態(tài)學(xué)）

Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalled

syntax.（句法學(xué)）

Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalled

semantics.（語義學(xué)）

Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalled

pragmatics.（語用學(xué)）

Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalled

socio-linguistics.（社會語言學(xué)）

Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofmindiscalledpsycho-linguistics.（心理語言學(xué)）Thestudyofapplications(astherecoveryofspeechability)isgenerallyknownas

appliedlinguistics.（應(yīng)用語言學(xué)）Butinanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguage.Otherrelatedbranchesinclude

anthropologicallinguistics,（人類語言學(xué)）

neurologicallinguistics,（神經(jīng)語言學(xué)）

mathematicallinguistics,（數(shù)字語言學(xué)）and

computationallinguistics.（計(jì)算機(jī)語言學(xué)）3/Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics語言學(xué)研究中的幾對基本概念Prescriptiveanddescriptive描寫與規(guī)定Ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobe

descriptive,ifitaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobe

prescriptive.Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammar.Traditionalgrammarisprescriptivewhilemodernlinguisticsisdescriptive.Thetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,whetheritis“correct”ornot.Synchronicanddiachronic共時(shí)和歷時(shí)Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisa

synchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisa

diachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyismoreimportant.Speechandwriting口頭語與書面語Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication.

Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenformoflanguageasprimary,butnotthewrittenform.

Reasons:1.Speechprecedeswriting;2.Therearestillmanylanguagesthathaveonlythespokenform;3.Intermsoffunction,thespokenlanguageisusedforawiderrangeofpurposesthanthewritten,andcarriesalargerloadofcommunicationthanthewritten.Langueandparole[p?'r?ul]語言和言語TheSwisslinguistF.deSaussuremadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleearly20th

century.Langue

referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,and

parole

referstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuremadethedistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.語言能力和語言運(yùn)用CompetenceandperformanceProposedbyAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.Hedefines

competence

astheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,and

performance

theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Hebelievesthetaskofthelinguistsistodiscoverandspecifythelanguagerules.

4/Whatislanguage?語言的定義Language

isasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Sapir,Edwarduses“ideas”“emotions”and“desires”inhisdefinition.Hall,likeSapir,treatslanguageasapurelyhumaninstitution.Chomsky’sdefinitionisquitedifferent,itfocusonthepurelystructuralpropertiesoflanguagesandtosuggestthatthesepropertiescanbeinvestigatedfromamathematicallyprecisepointofview.5/Designfeatures語言的甄別性特征Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.AmericanlinguistCharlesHockettspecifiedtwelvedesignfeatures.1)Arbitrariness任意性（和約定俗成性）

Itmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Forinstance,thereisnonecessaryrelationshipbetweentheworddogandtheanimalitrefersto.Thefactthatdifferentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguagesandthatthesamesoundmaybeusedtorefertodifferentobjectsisanothergoodexample.Althoughlanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary.Somewords,suchasthewordscreatedintheimitationofsoundsbysoundsaremotivatedinacertaindegree.Thearbitrarynatureoflanguagemakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions.

2)Productivity能產(chǎn)性Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingthosethattheyhaveneversaidorheardbefore.

3)Duality結(jié)構(gòu)二重性Itmeansthatlanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsatthelowerlevelandtheotherofmeaningsatthehigherlevel.Atthelowerorthebasiclevel,thereisthestructureofindividualandmeaninglesssounds,whichcanbegroupedintomeaningfulunitsatthehigherlevel.Thisdualityofstructureordoublearticulationoflanguageenablesitsuserstotalkaboutanythingwithintheirknowledge.

4)Displacement語言的移位性（突破時(shí)空性）Itmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedtotalkaboutwhathappenedinthepast,whatishappeningnow,orwhatwillhappeninthefuture.Languagecanalsobeusedtotalkaboutourrealwordexperiencesortheexperiencesinourimaginaryworld.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.

5)Culturaltransmission文化傳播性Whilewearebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearnedanew.

**********************************Chapter2Phonology

音系學(xué)1.Thephonicmediumoflanguage語言的聲音媒介Speechandwritingarethetwomediausedbynaturallanguagesasvehiclesforcommunication.Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwriting.Speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Forlinguists,thestudyofsoundsisofgreaterimportancethanthatofwriting.Thelimitedrangesofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandareofinteresttolinguisticstudiesarethephonicmediumoflanguage(語言的聲音媒介).Theindividualsoundswithinthisrangearethespeechsounds（語音）.2．Whatisphonetics?什么是語音學(xué)？Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage；Itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.語音學(xué)研究的對象是語言的聲音媒介，即人類語言中使用的全部語音。threebranchesofphoneticsArticulatoryphonetics（發(fā)音語音學(xué)）,itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthespeaker’spointofview.Itstudieshowaspeakeruseshisspeechorganstoarticulatethesounds.

Auditoryphonetics（聽覺語音學(xué)），itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthehearer’spointofview.Itstudieshowthesoundsareperceivedbyhehearer.

Acousticphonetics（聲學(xué)語音學(xué)），itstudiesthespeechsoundsbylookingatthesoundwaves.Itstudiesthephysicalmeansbywhichspeechsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother.aio3.

Organsofspeech發(fā)音器官Thepharyngealcavity咽腔

thethroatTheoralcavity口腔

themouthThenasalcavity鼻腔

thenose語音解剖圖發(fā)音器官圖4.Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds–broadandnarrowtranscriptions語音的書寫形式－寬式和窄式音標(biāo)IPA-InternationalPhoneticAlphabet國際音標(biāo)Therearetwowaystotranscribespeechsounds.Oneisthetranscriptionwithletter-symbols(字母符號)only,calledbroadtranscription(寬式音標(biāo)).Theotheristhetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics(變音符號),callednarrowtranscription(窄式音標(biāo)).p音的比較對pit/spit中p音的比較：pit中的p是送氣音，在窄式音標(biāo)中標(biāo)為上標(biāo)，寫作：[phit]spit中的p是不送氣音，在寬式音標(biāo)中不作標(biāo)示，寫作：[spit]l音的比較對leaf/feel/build/health中l(wèi)音的比較：Leaf中l(wèi)在元音前，叫清晰音，在寬式音標(biāo)中不作標(biāo)示，寫作：[li:f]Feel中l(wèi)出現(xiàn)在單詞結(jié)尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音標(biāo)中加變音符號[~]Build中l(wèi)出現(xiàn)在另一個(gè)輔音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音標(biāo)中也加變音符號[~]Health中l(wèi)出現(xiàn)在齒音前，受其影響叫齒音[l]，在窄式音標(biāo)中加變音符號[II]5.ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds英語語音的分類ConsonantsVowelsa)ClassificationofEnglishconsonants按發(fā)音方式分Stoporplosive塞音或爆破音:[p][b][t][d][k][g]Fricative擦音：[f][v][s][z][W][T][s][V][h]Affricate塞擦音：[tF][dV]Liquid流音：[l][r]Nasal鼻音：[m][n][N]Glide滑音：[w][j]

a)ClassificationofEnglishconsonants按發(fā)音部位分Bilabial雙唇音：[p][b][m][w]Labiodental唇齒音：[f][v]Dental齒音：[W][T]Alveolar齒齦音：[t][d][s][z][n][l][r]Palatal硬腭音：[V][tF][dV][i]Velar軟腭音：[k][g][N]Glottal聲門音：[h]B)ClassificationofEnglishvowels按舌頭在口中的位置分：Frontvowel前元音：[i:][i][e][A][a]Centralvowel中元音：[[:][[][Q]Backvowel后元音：[u:][u][R:][R][a:]B)ClassificationofEnglishvowels按口形的大小分：Closevowel閉元音：[i:][i][u:][u]Semi-closevowel半閉元音：[e][[:]Openvowel開元音：[A][a]Semi-openvowel半開元音：[[][R:][Q][R][a:]B)ClassificationofEnglishvowels按唇形是否為圓分Unroundedvowel不圓唇元音：[i:][i][e][A][a][[:][[][Q][a:]roundedvowel圓唇元音：[u:][u][R:][R]B)ClassificationofEnglishvowels按語音的長短分Longvowel長元音[i:][[:][a:][u:][R:]Shortvowel短元音[i][e][A][a][[][Q][u][R]6.Phonology

音系學(xué)Phonologyandphonetics音系學(xué)和語音學(xué)Bothphonologyandphoneticsarestudiesofspeechsounds.Phoneticsisofageneralnature,itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;Phonologyisinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage,itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Thusthesetwoareatoncerelatedanddistinctbranchesoflinguisticstudies.7.Phone,phoneme,andallophone語音（音素）、音位、音位變體PhonePhonecanbesimplydefinedasthespeechsoundsweusewhenspeakingalanguage.Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.語音是語言學(xué)研究的單位，是一個(gè)個(gè)具體的聲音。語音是一個(gè)語音單位或一個(gè)切分成分，它并不一定能區(qū)分意義。PhonologyPhonologyisconcernedwiththespeechsoundswhichdistinguishmeaning.Thebasicunitinphonologyiscalledphoneme,itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Butitisanabstractunit.Aphonemeisnotasound,itisacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.音位是音系學(xué)研究的單位，是抽象的概念，每一個(gè)音位是一組語音特征的集合體，音位具有區(qū)別意義的作用。一個(gè)音位在語音上被具體體現(xiàn)為一個(gè)特定的語音（音素）。按照慣例，音位被置于兩斜線之間，如/p//t/，而語音被置于方括號內(nèi)，如[p][t].allophonesThedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.音位變體是一個(gè)音位在特定的語音環(huán)境里的具體體現(xiàn)，同一個(gè)音位在不同的語音環(huán)境里體現(xiàn)為不同的變體，也就是語音。8.Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpair音位對立、互補(bǔ)分布、最小對立對Phoneticallysimilarsoundsmightberelatedintwoways.Theymightformacontrastiftheyaretwodistinctivephonemes,ortheydonotformacontrastinmeaningiftheyareallophonesofthesamephoneme.相似的語音之間可能有兩種關(guān)系。兩個(gè)相似的語音如果是兩個(gè)區(qū)別性音位，它們在意義上形成對立，如果是同一音位的變體，在意思上不形成對立。phonemiccontrastTheformer（theyaretwodistinctivephonemes）iscalledphonemiccontrast,theycanoccurinthesameenvironmentsandtheydistinguishmeaning.音位對立是指不同音位之間的關(guān)系，它們可以出現(xiàn)在不同的語音組合的同一位置，產(chǎn)生意義差別，如rope和robe中的/p/和/b/。complementarydistributionThelatter（theydonotformacontrastinmeaning）iscalledcomplementarydistribution;theyaretwoallophonesofthesamephoneme.Theyonlyoccurindifferentenvironments.互補(bǔ)分布是指音位變體之間的關(guān)系，同一個(gè)音位的不同變體在語音組合中永遠(yuǎn)不會出現(xiàn)在相同的位置上，它們沒有區(qū)別意義的作用，如top中的送氣的[p]和stop中不送氣的[p]。ThewayAbasicwaytodeterminethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundforanotheroneresultsinachangeofmeaning.Ifitdoes,thetwosoundsthenrepresentdifferentphonemes.Aneasywaytodothisistofindtheminimalpairs.確定一種語言的音位的一個(gè)基本途徑是，看如果用一個(gè)語音代替另一個(gè)是否會產(chǎn)生不同的意義。如果產(chǎn)生了，那么這兩個(gè)語音就代表不同的音位。為此，一個(gè)簡單的辦法就是找出最小對立對。aminimalpairWhentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.最小對立對是指除了出現(xiàn)在同一位置上的一個(gè)音之外其余都相同的兩個(gè)語音組合，如[pen]和[ben]。9.Somerulesinphonology幾條音系規(guī)則A)

sequentialrules系列規(guī)則Therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguagearecalledsequentialrules.在一種特定的語言中，語音的組合是受規(guī)則制約的，這些規(guī)則叫做系列規(guī)則。重要的規(guī)則：I.

如果單詞以[l]或[r]為首，其后的一個(gè)語音必定為元音，如rude,last,leapII.

如果三個(gè)輔音同時(shí)出現(xiàn)在單詞詞首，則：第一音位必定為/s/，第二音位必定是/p//t//k/，第三音位必定是/l//r//w/，如strict,splendid,springIII.

塞擦音[t?][dv]和咝音[s][z][F][V]后不能緊跟另一個(gè)咝音，如teach變復(fù)數(shù)為teaches[[ti:t?iz]。IV.

制約音位模式的規(guī)則是隨語言的不同而不同的，英語中適用，其它語言卻不適用。B)

assimilationrules同化規(guī)則Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.同化規(guī)則即通過“模仿”一個(gè)系列音位的一個(gè)特征使一個(gè)語音與另一個(gè)語音相似，從而使兩個(gè)音素變得相似。重要的規(guī)則：I.

元音后緊跟一個(gè)鼻音時(shí)，該元音要鼻音話。如bean/green中的[i:]音。II.

在一個(gè)單詞中，鼻音[n]所處的發(fā)音部位和緊隨其后的輔音的發(fā)音部位變得一樣。如correct–incorrect。III.語音同化規(guī)則也體現(xiàn)在有關(guān)單詞的拼寫中。如possible的否定形式是impossible，是因?yàn)閇n]音同化成了[m]音。C)deletionrules省略規(guī)則Theruletellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.省略規(guī)則告訴我們什么時(shí)候一個(gè)語音盡管在拼寫中存在，但在發(fā)音中卻省略了。重要的規(guī)則：如[g]音出現(xiàn)在位于詞尾的一個(gè)鼻輔音前時(shí)要省略。如sign中的[g]音不發(fā)音。而在加了后綴的signature中，[g]卻要發(fā)音的。10.

Suprasegmentalfeatures-stress,tone,intonation超切分特征：重音、聲調(diào)和語調(diào)Distinctivefeaturescanalsobefoundrunningoverasequenceoftwoormorephonemicsegments.Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonation,andtone.

區(qū)別性特征也可以在由兩個(gè)或多個(gè)音位切分成分所組成的系列中體現(xiàn)出來。出現(xiàn)在切分層面之上的音系特征叫做超切分特征。它們時(shí)音節(jié)、單詞和句子等語言單位的音系特征。主要的超切分特征包括重音、音調(diào)和語調(diào)。A)

Stress重音重要的規(guī)則：I.一個(gè)單詞如果既可以作名詞，又可以作動詞，則名詞重音在第一個(gè)音節(jié)上，相應(yīng)的動詞重音則在第二個(gè)音節(jié)上。如import。II.英語復(fù)合詞的重音常在第一個(gè)成分上，第二個(gè)成分是次重音。如hotdog。B)

Tone聲調(diào)漢語的聲調(diào)C)

Intonation語調(diào)Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.當(dāng)音高、重音和音長依附于一個(gè)句子而不是單個(gè)單詞時(shí)，這些音素合起來叫做語調(diào)。Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risetone,andtherise-falltone.Themostfrequentlyusedarethefirstthree.英語中有四種基本語調(diào)：降調(diào)、升調(diào)、降升調(diào)、升降調(diào)。最常用的是前三種。**********************************Chapter3Morphology

形態(tài)學(xué)WhatisMorphology?Morphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.形態(tài)學(xué)是語法的一個(gè)分支，研究詞的內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)和構(gòu)詞規(guī)則。twosub-branchesMorphologyisdividedintotwosub-branches:inflectionalmorphologyandlexicalorderivationalmorphology.Theformerstudiestheinflectionsandthelatteristhestudyofwordformation.形態(tài)學(xué)可分為兩個(gè)分支科學(xué)：屈折形態(tài)學(xué)和詞匯或派生形態(tài)學(xué)。前者研究詞的屈折變化，后者研究詞的構(gòu)成。1.

Morpheme

語素Thesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage語言最小的意義單位。

Themeaningmorphemesconveymaybeoftwokinds:lexicalmeaningandgrammaticalmeaning.語素表達(dá)的意義有兩種：詞匯意義和語法意義。2.Typesofmorphemes

語素的分類FreeBounda)

Freemorphemes自由語素

Freemorphemesarethemorphemeswhichareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselvesorincombinationwithothermorphemes.自由語素是獨(dú)立的意義單位，能夠獨(dú)自自由使用，當(dāng)然也可以和其它語素結(jié)合使用。b)

Boundmorphemes黏著語素

Boundmorphemesarethemorphemeswhichcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.黏著語素是那些不能單獨(dú)使用，而必須和其它語素－自由語素或黏著語素－結(jié)合在一起以形成一個(gè)單詞的語素。3.

Typesofboundmorphemes

黏著語素的分類Boundmorphemesincludetwotypes:rootsandaffixes詞根和詞綴。

RootArootisoftenseenaspartofword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.詞根被看作是詞的一部分，它有清楚、明確的意思，但不能單獨(dú)存在，它必須和另一個(gè)詞根或詞綴組合構(gòu)成單詞。AffixesAffixesareoftwotypes:1.inflectional2.derivational屈折詞綴和派生詞綴InflectionalaffixesInflectionalaffixesorinflectionalmorphemesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degree,andcase.屈折詞綴或屈折語素表明各種不同的語法關(guān)系或語法范疇，如：數(shù)、時(shí)態(tài)、形容詞和副詞的級和格。TheEnglishinflectionalaffixes-(e)s,indicatingpluralityofnouns表示名詞復(fù)數(shù)-(e)s,indicatingthirdpersonsingular,presenttense表示現(xiàn)在時(shí)的第三人稱單數(shù)-(e)d,indicatingpasttenseforallthreepersons表示過去時(shí)-ing,indicatingprogressiveaspect表示進(jìn)行時(shí)-er,indicatingcomparativedegreeofadj.andadverbs表示形容詞和副詞比較級-est,indicatingsuperlativedegreeofadj.andadverbs表示形容詞和副詞最高級-‘s,indicatingthepossessivecaseofnouns表示名詞的所有格DerivationalaffixesDerivationalaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword.ThisisaverycommonwaytocreatenewwordsinEnglish.Suchawayofword-formationiscalledderivationandthenewwordformedbyderivationiscalledaderivative.Theexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeaddediscalledastem.Astemcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.派生詞綴加在一個(gè)原有的單詞上以構(gòu)成一個(gè)新詞。這是英語中的一個(gè)很常見的構(gòu)成新詞的方式，這樣的方式叫派生法，用派生法構(gòu)成的新詞叫派生詞。能夠加上一個(gè)派生詞綴的原有語素叫做詞干。詞干可以是一個(gè)黏著詞根、自由語素或者本身就是一個(gè)派生詞。ExampleTolerate

詞根toler-＋詞綴-ateQuickly

自由語素quick＋詞綴-lyCarelessness

自由語素care＋詞綴-less形成的派生詞careless＋詞綴-ness

PrefixesandSuffixesAffixesaredividedintotwokinds:-prefixes-suffixes前綴和后綴PrefixesPrefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword.Exceptionaretheprefixes“be-”and“en(m)-”.前綴改變詞干的意思，但通常不改變原詞的詞性?！癰e-”和“en(m)-”是例外。SuffixesSuffixesareaddedtotheendofthestem,theymodify=ythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.后綴加在詞干的末尾，改變原詞的意思，并且在多數(shù)情況下，改變原詞的詞性。4.

Morphologicalrules

形態(tài)學(xué)規(guī)則Morphologicalrulesaretherulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypesofstemtoformanewword.形態(tài)學(xué)規(guī)則主要指英語中通過派生方式構(gòu)成新詞的構(gòu)詞規(guī)則，即將詞綴加到詞干上去構(gòu)成新詞的規(guī)則。學(xué)習(xí)者必須掌握這些規(guī)則，但又要注意不能過分概括這些規(guī)則，以免生造出不存在的單詞。5.

Typesofcompoundwords

復(fù)合詞的類型Noun+noun

名詞＋名詞

如：handbook,sunshineAdjective+noun形容詞＋名詞

如：highway,sweetheartAdjective+noun+ed形容詞＋名詞＋ed

如：white-haired,green=eyedVerb+noun動詞＋名詞

如：pickpocket,drivewayAdverb+noun副詞＋名詞

如：downtown,upgradeNoun+verb

名詞＋動詞

如：toothpick,snowfallVerb+adverb

動詞＋副詞

如：follow-up,kick-offNoun+adjective

名詞＋形容詞

如：world-famous,life-long-ingform+noun

-ing形式＋名詞

如：dining-room,reading-glassesOtherforms

其它形式

如：go-between,father-in-law,upbringing,have-nots,thank-younote6.

Featuresofcompounds1)

Orthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasonewordwithorwithoutahypheninbetween,orastwoseparatewords.在拼寫上，復(fù)合詞既可以寫成一個(gè)詞，中間加連字符或不加連字符，也可以分開寫。如armchair,follow-up,thunderbird2)

Syntactically,thepartofspeechofthecompoundisgenerallydeterminedbythepartofspeechofthesecondelement.在語法上，復(fù)合詞的詞性一般取決于復(fù)合詞中第二個(gè)成分的詞性。如icy-cold是形容詞，head-strong也是形容詞，greenhouse是名詞。而例外的情況有：follow-up,crackdown,kickoff都是名詞而不是副詞，而toothpick,snowfall,facelift都是名詞而不是動詞。3)

Semantically,themeaningofacompoundisoftenidiomatic,notalwaysbeingthesumtotalofthemeaningofitscomponents.在語意上，復(fù)合詞的意義具有習(xí)語特性，許多復(fù)合詞的意義都不是其構(gòu)成成分的意義的總和。如hotdog,greenhouse等。4)

Phonetically,thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,whilethesecondelementreceivessecondarystress.在語音上，復(fù)合詞的重音總是在第一個(gè)構(gòu)成成分上，而次重音在第二個(gè)構(gòu)成成分上。這一點(diǎn)可以幫助我們用來區(qū)分兩種-ing的形式，一種是作為名詞前修飾語的-ing形式，另一種是作為復(fù)合詞的前一部分。如runningdog重音在running上，表示“走狗”這一-ing形式＋名詞的復(fù)合詞。如重音在dog上，則表示running用來修飾dog，意為“還在跑的狗”。**********************************Chapter4Syntax

句法學(xué)1.WhatisSyntax?Syntaxstudiesthesentencestructureoflanguage.ThetermsyntaxcameoriginallyfromGreek.Itliterallymeantarrangement.Itmeansthatsentencesarestructuredaccordingtoaparticulararrangementofwords.Well-arrangedsentencesareconsideredgrammaticalsentences.Grammaticalsentencesareformedfollowingasetofsyntacticrules.句法學(xué)研究語言的句子結(jié)構(gòu)。該術(shù)語來自希臘語，字意是排列。句子是根據(jù)一種特定的排列詞的方式構(gòu)成的。排列正確的句子被認(rèn)為是合乎語法的句子。合乎語法的句子是根據(jù)一套句法規(guī)則構(gòu)成的。句法是一個(gè)規(guī)則系統(tǒng)。2.

Syntaxasasystemofrules

句法是規(guī)則系統(tǒng)Syntaxconsistsofasetofabstractrulesthatallowwordstobecombinedwithotherwordstoformgrammaticalsentences.Asentenceisconsideredgrammaticalwhenitisinagreementwiththegrammaticalknowledgeinthemindofnativespeakers.Universallyfoundinthegrammarsfallhumanlanguages,syntacticrulescomprisethesystemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeakerknownaslinguisticcompetence.句法是一個(gè)由一套數(shù)量有限的抽象規(guī)則組成的系統(tǒng)，句子由單詞組合而成。句子的語法性是指句子的合成必須符合操本族語者頭腦中的語法知識。任何一種語言的句法規(guī)則都包含了說話者的頭腦中的語言知識系統(tǒng)（稱為語言能力）。FiniteandnolimitThesyntacticrulesofanylanguagearefiniteinnumber,andyetthereisnolimittothenumberofsentencesnativespeakersofthatlanguageareabletoproduceandcomprehend.任何語言的句法規(guī)則的數(shù)量是有限的，但說話者可以理解和表達(dá)的句子的數(shù)量是無限的。3.

Thebasiccomponentsofasentence

句子的構(gòu)成Asentenceisastructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatement,questionorcommand.Normally,asentenceconsistsofatleastasubject（主語）anditspredicate（謂語）whichcontainsafiniteverboraverbphrase.句子是一個(gè)結(jié)構(gòu)獨(dú)立和完整的語法單位，這一單位通常由一些單詞組成一個(gè)完整的陳述句、問句或命令。一個(gè)句子至少包含一個(gè)主語和一個(gè)謂語，而謂語又包含一個(gè)限定動詞或一個(gè)動詞詞組。subjectThereferringexpression（被指稱的對象）,suchasaperson,aplace,athing,anidea,oranevent,isgrammaticallycalledsubject.Asubjectisusuallyanounoranounphrase.主語是指句子中被指稱的對象，如人、物、事、概念等。主語通常由名詞或名詞詞組構(gòu)成。predicateThepartofsentencewhichcomprisesafiniteverboraverbphraseandwhichsayssomethingaboutthesubjectisgrammaticallycalledpredicate.Afiniteverb,informallycalledthemainverbofasentence,expressesexistence,actionoroccurrencewhichislimitedbyperson,number,tenseandmood.謂語是指對句子中主語進(jìn)行表述或判斷的部分。謂語通常由限定動詞或動詞詞組構(gòu)成。限定動詞常被稱為句子的中心動詞，表述存在、動作或出現(xiàn)，限定動詞送人稱、數(shù)、時(shí)態(tài)和情態(tài)的限制。4．Typesofsentence

句子的類型a)

Thesimplesentence簡單句Asimplesentenceconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.簡單句由一個(gè)子句構(gòu)成，該子句包含一個(gè)主語和一個(gè)謂語，且獨(dú)立構(gòu)成句子。b)

Thecoordinatesentence并列句

Acoordinatesentencecontainstwoclausejoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunction,suchas“and”but””or”.并列句包含兩個(gè)子句，由and,but,or等并列連詞連接。c)

Thecomplexsentence復(fù)合句

Acomplexsentencecontainstwoormoreclauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.Thatis,thetwoclausesinacomplexsentenceholdunequalstatus,onesubordinatingtheother.Theincorporated,orsubordinateclauseisnormallycalledanembeddedclause,andtheclauseintowhichitisembeddediscalledamatrixclause.復(fù)合句包含兩個(gè)或兩個(gè)以上的子句，其中一個(gè)被并入另一個(gè)句子。復(fù)合句中兩個(gè)句子的地位是不同的，一個(gè)句子從屬于另一個(gè)句子。被并入或是從屬的子句通常被稱為子句，而包含子句的子句被稱為主句。5.Thelinearwordorderofasentence

句子的線性詞序

Whenasentenceisutteredorwrittendown,thewordsofthesentenceareproducedoneafteranotherinasequence.Meanwhile,theyareheardorreadasarrangedoneafteranotherinasequence.Thissequentialorderofwordsinasentencesuggeststhatthestructureofasentenceislinear.我們說出或?qū)懴乱粋€(gè)句子，其中的詞語是按次序一個(gè)接一個(gè)出現(xiàn)的。同時(shí)，對方也是一個(gè)接一個(gè)次序聽到這個(gè)詞語的。句子中詞語的這種有次序的排列表明，句子的結(jié)構(gòu)是線性的。6.Thehierarchicalstructureofasentence

句子的層次結(jié)構(gòu)

Thesuperficialarrangementofwordsinalinearsequencedoesnotentailthatsentencesaresimplylinearlystructured.Sentencestructureishierarchicalinnature.

組成句子的單詞表面上的線性排列并不意味著句子僅僅是線性結(jié)構(gòu)的。句子實(shí)際上是有層次結(jié)構(gòu)的。7.Treediagramsofsentencestructure

句子結(jié)構(gòu)樹形圖

Thehierarchicalordercanbebestillustratedwithatreediagramofconstituentstructure.句子的層次結(jié)構(gòu)可以用各組成部分的樹形圖來很好地說明。見課文67－70頁。Inaddition,thehierarchicalstructureofsentencescanalsobeillustratedbyusingbracketsandsubscriptlabels.另外，句子的層次結(jié)構(gòu)還可以用括號和寫在下角的標(biāo)記來標(biāo)示。見課文71頁。8.Lexicalcategories

詞類Wordsareorganizedintogroupsoflexicalcategories,commonlyknownaspartsofspeech.Alanguagehasmajorandminorlexicalcategories.Majorlexicalcategoriesareopencategoriesthatnewwordsareconstantlyadded.Minorlexicalcategoriesareclosedcategoriesbecausethenumberofthelexicalitemsinthesecategoriesisfixedandnonewmembersareallowedfor.Englishhasfourmajorlexicalcategoriesandsixminorlexicalcategories.所有的詞都有某種屬性，即詞性。詞可以分為主要詞類和次要詞類。主要詞類不斷有新詞加入，它是開放詞類，而次要詞類是封閉的，因?yàn)檫@類詞的詞項(xiàng)是固定的，不允許有新詞加入。英語有四個(gè)主要詞類和六個(gè)次要詞類。

主要詞類：Noun(N)名詞：studentVerb(V)動詞：likeAdjective(Adj)形容詞：tallAdverb(Adv)副詞：loudly次要詞類：Determiner(Det)限定詞：the,a,this,hisAuxiliary(Aux)助動詞：can,do,willPreposition(Prep)介詞：in,at,overPronoun(Pron)代詞：he,she,us,mineConjunction(Conj)連詞：and,or,but,whileInterjection(Int)感嘆詞：oh,ah,eh9.Phrasalcategories

詞組類型Fourphrasalcategoriesarecommonlyrecognizedanddiscussed,namely,nounphrase(NP),verbphrase(VP),prepositionalphrase(PP),andadjectivephrase(AP).NPandVPareessentialcomponentsofasentence,comprisingthesubjectandpredicate.通常討論的詞組類型有四種，分別是：名詞詞組，動詞詞組，介詞詞組和形容詞詞組。名詞詞組和動詞詞組是句子中最重要的詞組，因?yàn)樗鼈儤?gòu)成了句子的主語和謂語。TrueorFalse?Importantnote:NPjustcontainanoun,VPjustcontainaverb,PPjustcontainaprepositionandAPjustcontainanadjective.重要：一個(gè)名詞詞組只包含一個(gè)名詞，一個(gè)動詞詞組只包含一個(gè)動詞，一個(gè)介詞詞組只包含一個(gè)介詞，一個(gè)形容詞詞組只包含一個(gè)形容詞。10.Grammaticalrelations

語法關(guān)系Thestructuralandlogicalfunctionrelationsofconstituentsarecalledgrammaticalrelations.語法關(guān)系是指句子中名詞詞組和動詞的關(guān)系，其中涉及到主語和賓語的結(jié)構(gòu)性和邏輯性。N-VThegrammaticalrelationsofasentenceconcernthewayeachnounphraseinthesentencerelatestotheverb.從結(jié)構(gòu)上看，英語句子中的主語往往出現(xiàn)在動詞之前，賓語往往出現(xiàn)在動詞止回。S-V，V-OInEnglishandmanyotherlanguages,thesubjectusuallyprecedestheverbandthedirectobjectusuallyfollowstheverb.StructuralandlogicalStrictlyspeaking,thisstatementistrueonlyintermsofthestructuralsubject（結(jié)構(gòu)主語）andthestructuralobject（結(jié)構(gòu)賓語）.Thelogicalsubject（邏輯主語）andthelogicalobject（邏輯賓語）mayhavedifferentpositions.中文翻譯參考語法關(guān)系是指句子中名詞詞組和動詞的關(guān)系，其中涉及到主語和賓語的結(jié)構(gòu)性和邏輯性。從結(jié)構(gòu)上看，英語句子中的主語往往出現(xiàn)在動詞之前，賓語往往出現(xiàn)在動詞止回。這種置動詞之前的主語叫結(jié)構(gòu)主語，置動詞之后的賓語叫結(jié)構(gòu)賓語。結(jié)構(gòu)主語和結(jié)構(gòu)賓語只是句子的形式主語和形式賓語，而意義上的主語和賓語才是句子的邏輯主語和邏輯賓語。邏輯主語是實(shí)施者，而邏輯賓語是受事者。邏輯主語和邏輯賓語在句子中的位置可以同形式主語和形式賓語在句子中的位置相同，也可以不同。如英語被動句中的形式主語是邏輯賓語，而形式賓語是邏輯主語。11.Phrasalstructurerules

短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則Thecombinationalpatterninalinearformulamaybecalledaphrasestructuralrule,orrewriterule.短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則是一組句法重寫規(guī)則。Example1S→NPVP.Thearrowisreadas“consistof”,or“isrewrittenas”。Theruleis:asentenceconsistsof,orisrewrittenas,anounphraseandaverbphrase.在本例中，箭頭讀作“包含”或“重寫為”。這樣的規(guī)則就讀作：一個(gè)句子包含或可以重寫為一個(gè)名詞詞組和一個(gè)動詞詞組。Example2NP→(Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S)Anounphraseconsistsof,orisrewrittenas,anoptionaldeterminer,anoptionaladjective,anobligatorynoun,anoptionalprepositionalphrase,and/oranoptionalsentence.這就是名詞詞組的短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則，讀作：一個(gè)名詞詞組包含或可以重寫為一個(gè)限定詞、一個(gè)形容詞、一個(gè)名詞、一個(gè)介詞詞組和（或）一個(gè)