現(xiàn)代大學(xué)英語(yǔ)聽(tīng)力4全冊(cè)答案及原文

/350Ill/350Ill/350Dunn:Atthebeginning,sir?Well,thafsratherdifficult.BigMan:Idon'tmeanatthebeginningofbeginnings.ThoseearlyledgersjustcoverourdebtstoEgyptandGreeceandPersiafortheirdevelopmentsandthoseaccountsareclosed.No,Imean"beginatthebeginningofthecurrentaccount11.Americanindustry.Dunn:Isee,yes,well,thenwecanbeginrighthereintheA's.Hmm,let'sseenow..,here'sanicefatfile.Agriculture.Now,youllnoticethatinthisearlyentry,dated1831,amanwiththatreaperwouldbeabletoharvestfourtimesasfastasamanwithacradleandascythe.Thinkofit!BigMan:Soundslikearemarkableachievement.Yes,Mr.Merritt?Merritt:Ijustantedtosaythatfromthisearlyreapercamethewholeconceptofmechanizedagriculture.Whereitoncetook46hourstoharvestoneacreofwheat,itnowtakeslessthanhalfanhour!BigMan:Remarkable.Thenyou'dgivethisahighcreditevaluation?Merritt:Ohyes,certainly.Why,withoutmechanizedagriculture,there'ssomedoubtthattheMiddleWestcouldeverhavebeenopenedup...withoutslavery,thatis.Indeed,thereapermayhaveservedthecauseofabolition.Andthroughouttheyears,ourvastagriculturalexpansionhasn'tbenefitedtheUnitedStatesalone.Forexample,rightafterWorldWarsIandII,USagriculturevirtuallykeptEuropealive.BigMan:Andyou,MissScratch.You'veheardallofthesebenefitsofmechanizedagriculture.Haveyouanythingtosayagainstthisremarkableachievement?Scratch:Yes,Ihave.Lookthere,please.Theentryfor1934.LookacrosstheplainsandseeOklahomablowingaway.Thedustbowl,workedtodeath,andlefttoblowaway.Orthisentry,morerecent.Followmedownthiscountryroad.Thefarmontheleftbelongstoamanwhosegrandfatherhomesteadedthelandbackinthe1850s.There'sthehouse,rightnexttothatpeppertree.Anicebigverandahandascreendoortobangwhenkidsrunthrough.Butthereontheverandahporchahand-letteredsign:FARMFORSALE.Whyaretheyselling?Theycantpeteagainstthebiglimnbineswiththeircostlyequipmentandcorporatemanagementandalltherest.Andwherearetheygoing?Tothecities,wheretheywillmeltinwiththeotherdispossessedandneverfeelathomeagainaslongastheylivewherethey'llforgettheseasonsandthesoilandforgetthatthingsarebornnewintheirseasonanddieintheirseasonmidthatthisisthewaylifeshouldbe.They'llforget,butworse,theirchildrenwillneverknow.Merritt:Really,MissScratch,Ithinkyou'reromanticizinglifeonafarm.Lifeonafarmishardlife.BigMan:Andlifeinacityisaneasylife?Merritt:Yes,well,let'smoveon.Whafsthenextfile,Dunn?Dunn:Uh,aircraft.Aircraftandairlines.Theairlinesindustryaloneisworth88billiondollarsannually.Now,historicallyspeaking,itreallygotoffthegroundin1903whenacoupleofbicyclemanufacturersbegantestingouttheiraiiplane.Ontheirfourthsuccessfulflightthatday,theywereelatedwhentheyflew852feetin59seconds.Merritt:Andwiththosewords"TheEaglehaslanded"，mansignaledthathehadatlastlandedsafelyonthesurfaceofthemoon.BigMan:Yes,indeed,mostimpressive.Whatelsehaveyouonthecreditsheet,there,Merritt?Merritt:Nothingasspectacular,ofcourse.Airtravelhasshrunktheworlddramatically,andinsodoing,ithasincreasedunderstandingbetweenpeoples.AndthenconsiderthemailsApieceofpaperwithyourmessageonitcanbepassedfromyourhandtothehandofafriend10,000milesawayinadayortwo.ThefirstUSairmailroutewassetupasearlyas1919...Scratch:Butasearlyas1909,aplanewasbeingtestedforwar.Justwheredidtheairplanegofromthatsanddunein19037Tothemoon,sure,butalsotoPearlHarborin1941,toDresden,toHamburg.Andthen,in1945,anAmericanbombertookofffromtheislandofTinian.Itsdestination:Hiroshima.Merritt:Well,sinceHiroshimaandNagasaki,morethan25yearsago,noatombomborhydrogenbombhasbeenused.Thinkoftheemploymenttheaircraftindustrybrings,everyimaginablekindofjob,fromstewardesstowelder...Scratch:Okay,lefstalkabouteverydayAmerica.Jetsarefoulingtheairandassaultingourearswithnoise!Andtheyarecontributingtotheaccelerationofourlives,sothatwethinkwe'vegottogeteverywhereinahurry,eventhoughwedon'treallyknowwherewe'regoing.Task4:【答案】Hewantedtobuildgood,low-pricedcarsforthegeneralpublic.Theyconsidereditthefastestandsurestformoftransportation.ThelaststepinFord'sproductionsuccesswastoraisehisworkers1payfrom2to5dollarsaday.Hisideawasthatifworkersreceivedgoodwages,theybecamebetterbuyers.Andifmanufacturerssoldmoreproducts,theycouldlowerpricesandstillcammoney.BecausewhateverEdselsaid,peoplebelievedhewasspeakingforhisfatherHenryFord.Chevrolethadadifferentlookeveryyearandcouldbepaidforoveratongperiodoftimeratherthanfullpaymentatthetimeofsale.Peoplemourneditsend,andtheyrecognizedthattheModelTwasthelastofthefirstcarsinthebravenewworldofautomobiledevelopment.1903:AdoctorioDetroit,Michigan,boughtthefrs[carfromtheFordMotorpany.ThatsalewasthvbeqinninaofHenryFond'sdream.1908:TheModelTwasreadyforsale.1913:Fordbecamepopularwithcarbuyerswhenhv《avnback50dollarstoeach-ersonWhohadboughtaFordcar.1916:ThepriceoftheModelThaddroppedto345dollars.1919:FordwasinvolvedinadisputewiththeotherpeoplewhoownedstocksintheFordMotorpany.1923:57percentofthecarsproducedinAmericawereModelTFords.AbouthalfthecarsproducedintheworldwereFords.Finally,evenFordadmitted[hattheageoftheModelTwasover.Anew'FordwasneededTheModelTwasgone.【原文】In1903,adoctorinDetroit,Michigan,boughtthefirstcarfromtheFordMotorpany.ThatsalewasthebeginningofHenryFord'sdream.Hewantedtobuildgood,low-pricedcarsforthegeneralpublic.Ashesaidmanytimes:nIwanttomakeacarthatanybodycanbuy.”Tokeeppriceslow,HenryForddecidedthathewouldbuildjustonekindofcar.Hecalleditthe"ModelT”.TheModelTwasreadyforsaleinOctober1908.TheModelTcost850dollars.Itwasasimplemachinethatdriverscoulddependon.DoctorsboughttheModelT.Sodidfarmers.Evencriminals.Theyconsidereditthefastestandsurestformoftransportation.AmericanslovedtheModelT.Theywrotestoriesandsongsaboutit.ThousandsofModelTswerebuiltinthefirstfewyears.Thepublicwantedthecar.AndHenryFordmademoreandmore.TomaketheModelT,Fordbuiltthelargestfactoryofitstime.Insidethefactory,carpartsmovedtotheworkersexactlywhentheyneededthem.Otherfactoriesmovedsomepartstotheworkers.ButFordwasthefirsttodesignhisfactorypletelyaroundthissystem.Productionrosesharply.Asproductionrose,Fordloweredprices.By1916,thepricehaddroppedto345dollars.ThelaststepinFord'sproductionsuccesswastoraisehisworkers*pay.Hisworkershadalwaysearnedabout2dollarsfor10hoursofwork.Thatwasthesamedailyrateasatotherfactories.Withwagesthesameeverywhere,factoryworkersoftenchangedjobs.HenryFordwandloyalworkerswhowouldremain.Heraisedwagesto5dollarsaday.ThatmadeHenryFordpopularwithworkingmen.Hebecamepopularwithcarbuyersin1913whenhegaveback50dollarstoeachpersonwhohadboughtaFordcar.HenryFordwasdemonstrating,hisideathatifworkersreceivedgoodwages,theybecamebetterbuyers.Andifmanufacturerssoldimoreproducts,theycouldlowerpricesandstillearnmoney.ThissystemworkedforFordbecausepeoplecontinuedtodemandhisModelT,andtheyhadthemoneytobuyit.ButwhatwouldhappenwhenpeoplenolongerwantedtheModelTordidnothavethemoney?In1919,HenrywasinvolvedinadisputewiththeotherpeoplewhoownedstocksintheFordMotorpany.Intheend,Henryboughtthestocksoftheotherinvestors.Hegainedpletecontrolofthepany.Theinvestorsdidnotdobadly,however.Aninvestmentof10,000dollarswhenthepanywasfirstestablishedproducedareturn-of25miltondollars.Afewyearslater,anothergroupofinvestorsofferedFord1,000milliondollarsforthepany.Buthewasnotinterestedinselling.Hewantedpletecontrolofthepanythathadhisname.Inasense,HenryFordwasthepany.Henry'sson,Edselwasnamedpresidentofthepanybefore1920.NoonetrulybelievedthatEdselwasrunningthepany.WhateverEdselsaid,peoplebelievedhewasspeakingforhisfather.In1923,57percentofthecarsproducedinAmericawereModelTFords.AbouthalfthecarsproducedintheworldwereFords.Neverbefore-orsince-hasonecarpanysocontrolledworldcarproduction.ThesuccessoftheFordMotorpanypermittedHenryFordtoworkonotherprojects.Hebecameanewspaperpublisher.Heboughtarailway.Hebuiltairplanes.HehelpedbuildahospitaltHeevenranfortheUnitedStatesSenate.SomeofHenry'sprojectswerealmostunbelievable.Forexample,hetriedtoendWorldWarIbysailingtoEuropewithagroupofpeacesupporters.WhileHenryFordenjoyedhissuccess,adangeroussituationwasdeveloping.OtherpaniesbegantosellwhatonlyFordhadbeenselling:good,low-pricedcars.Ford'sbiggestpetitorwastheGeneralMotorpany.GeneralMotorsproducedtheChevroletautomobile.Ford'sModelTwasstilladependablecar.Butithadnotchangedinyears.PeoplesaidtheModelTenginewastooloud.Theysaiditwastooslow.TheChevrolet,however,hadadifferentlookeveryyear.Andyoucouldpayforoneoveralongperiodoftime.Forddemandedtallpaymentatthetimeofsale.Ford'sshareofthecarmarketbegantofall.EveryoneatFordagreedthattheModelTmustgo.HenryForddisagreed.Anditwashisdecisionthatmattered.Finally,in1926,evenHenryadmittedthattheageoftheModelTwasover.AnewFordwasneeded.Ayearlater,theModelTwasgone.Strangelyenough,peoplemourneditsend.Theydidnotwanttobuyitanymore,buttheyrecognizedthattheModelTwasthelastofthefirstcars!nthebravenewworldofautomobiledevelopment.Task5:【答案】1)T2)T3)F4)T5)F6)TTheunionexecutivehasdecidedtoaskfora12percentincreaseinbasichourlywageratesinordertomakeupforinflation.Becausethepanyhasmadehardlyanyprofitatallthisyear.Anyincreaseinwageswouldraisethecostsabovethoseofthepetitorsandwouldeventuallyleadtothebankruptcyofthispany.Iftheunioncouldhelpincreaseproductivity.They1!!beforcedtoresorttoindustrialaction.Themanagementwarnsthatanydisruptioninproductionwouldcausegreatlossestothispanyandwouldresultinconsiderablelayoffsofunderproductiveworkers.【原文】Mr.Johnson:Goodmorning,Mr.Evans.Whatcan1doforyou?Mr.Evans:Theunionexecutivehasdecidedtoaskfora12percentincreaseinbasichourlywageratesinordertomakeupforinflation.Mr.Johnson:Fmafraidthatwouldbeoutofthequestion.We'vemadehardlyanyprofitatallthisyear.Mr.Evans:Thafsnoconcernofours,Mr.Johnson.Wehavetotakecareofourfamiliesandunlessourwagesareraised;wellbeunabletomakeendsmeet.Mr.Johnson:Ihavemysympathyofcourse,butyoumustrealizethatanyincreaseinwageswouldraiseourcostsabovethoseofourpetitorsandwouldeventuallyleadtothebankruptcyofthispany.Mr.Evans:Asamatteroffact,yourpetitorspayhigherwagesthanyoudo.Mr.Johnson:Theirwagesmightbeslightlyhigher,buttheirworkersaremoreproductivethanours.Ifyouhelpustoincreaselaborproductivity,wellgladlyraiseyourwages.Mr.Evans:We'rewillingtodiscussseparatelyanyproposalsyoumayhaveforraisingproductivity,butI'mafraidourwageclaimisnotopentodiscussion.Ifyouranswerisn'tfavorable,wellbeforcedtoresorttoindustrialaction.Mr.Johnson:Letmewarnyouthatanydisruptioninproductionwouldcausegreatlossestothisfirmandwouldresultinconsiderablelayoffsofunder-productiveworkers.Tinpreparedtoconsideryourrequest,butnotunderduress.Ineedseveraldaystodiscussthematterwiththedirectors.IcanprobablygiveyouananswerbynextWednesday.Mr.Evans:Verywell.Wecanwaituntilthen.ButIdoubtifwewouldsettleforlegsthan12percent.Task6:【答案】1)F2)T3)F4)TByhandorwithsimpletoolsandmachines.Oneinwhichpeopledidtheirjobsintheirowncottagesorhomes.Britishmanufacturesboughtcottonthere,madeitintofinishedgoodsintheUKandsoldthemback.Inbigfactories.Moreandmorepeoplehadtoworkinfactories.Theyhadtomoveclosertowheretheywereworking.Sotownsandcitiesgrewuparoundthefactories.Nolongerdidtheyraisetheirownfoodormaketheirownclothing.Often,theylivedinrentedhomesorrooms.Iftheywereunabletowork,theyhadnoprotection.c.DuringtheMiddleArcs,mostfamiliesfilledtheirowrneedsforcloth.Withspecializationofwork,merchantsfounditcouldproducemorecloth,thusacottageindustrywasformed.Newinventionsalsobroughtnewironloomsandsteampower,andmoreandmorejobscametobedonein.factories.Inthefactoryindustry,peopleimportedrawmaterialsandsoldbackthefinishedgoods.ThechangesinBritishindustryaffectedeveryone.【原文】ThroughtheMiddleAgesandafter,peopleintheBritishIslesmademostthingsbyhandorwithsimpletoolsandmachines.Theninthe1700sand1800s,manynewinventionsbroughtgreatchangesinthewaysthingsweremade.Awholenewworldbegan.ThesechangesarecalledtheIndustrialRevolution.Arevolutionisagreatpoliticaloreconomicchange.TheIndustrialRevolutiongaveBritaintheworld'sstrongesteconomy.WewilllookathowtheIndustrialRevolutionchangedthemakingofjustoneproduct-textilesorcloth.Whathappenedinthisoneindustryissimilartowhathappenedinotherindustries.DuringtheMiddleAges,mostfamiliesfilledtheirownneedsforcloth.Familiesraisedtheirownsheep,shearedthewool,spunthewoolintothread,andwovethethreadintocloth.Thistooklongtimetodo.Eachfamilycouldmakeonlyenoughclothforitsownneeds.Then,agreatchangetookplace.Merchantsdiscoveredthatmoreclothcouldbeproducedifpeoplewoulddojustonejob.Thisiscalledspecialization.Themerchantsorganizedthefamilies.Eachfamilydidaspecificpartofthetask.Someraisedsheep.Othersshearedthewoolfrom,thesheep.Stillothersspunthewoolintothread.Thisthreadwastakentootherfamiliestobewovenintocloth.Wheneachfamilydidonlyonejob,theyproducedmuchmoreclothperfamily.Nowtherewasextraclothtoselltootherpeople.Peopledidthesejobsintheirowncottages,orhomes,sothiswascalledacottageindustry.Atfirst,clothwaswovenonloomspoweredbyhandorbywaterwheels.Theseloomsworkedslowlyandcouldnotbeverybig.Toproducemorecloth,theloomshadtobechanged.Newinventionschangedthewaysinwhichpeoplemadecloth.Loomsbegantobemadeofironinsteadofwood.Thesenewloomscouldbemuchlargerthantheoldones.Infact,theybecamesobigthattheywouldnotfitinpeople'shomes.Theyhadtobemovedtospecialbuildings.Suchbuildingswithmanymachinesandmanyworkersarecalledfactories.Insteadofworkingathome,theworkersnowhadtogotothefactoriestowork.Thenewironloomscouldnotbepoweredbyhand.Waterpowerwasalsonotsufficient.Finally,steampowercametobeused.Everyfactoryhadtohavefueltoheatthewatertomakethesteam.Britainhadlotsofcoal,ablackmineralthatwasanexcellentfuel.Thenewloomsweresuppliedwiththreadbynewspinningmachines.Moreandmorejobscametobedoneinfactories.Thetextileindustryhadchanged.Itwasnolongeracottageindustry;itwasnowafactoryindustry.Thenewmachinesusedsomuchwoolthatithadtobeimportedfromothernations.Cottonalsocametobeusedforcloth.Thewoolandcottonwererawmaterials.Thesearethingsthataregrown,raised,gathered,ormined.Theyarethenmadeintousefulthings,calledfinishedgoods.TypicallyBritishmanufacturersboughtrawmaterialsinothernations.TheybroughtthesebacktoBritaintobemadeintofinishedgoods.Theythensoldthosegoodstothenationsfromwhichtheyhadboughttherawmaterials.SuchwasthecasewiththecottongrowninthesouthernUnitedStates.ThechangesinBritishindustryaffectedeveryone.Nowmanypeopleworkedinabigfactoryratherthanathome.Eachpersonhadtolearntoworkwithpeoplefromotherfamilies.Peoplewhoworkedinfactorieshadtolivenearthem.Somoreandmorepeoplemovedclosertowheretheywereworking.Thus,townsandcitiesgrewuparoundthefactories.Thesecitiesbecamecrowded.Peoplecouldlivemcitiesonlyifotherpeopleinthecountrycouldproducefoodforthem.Farmersbegantousenewmethodsthatproducedmorefood.Thisextrafoodcouldteedthepeopleinthecities.Manyfarmers,too,begantospecializeinonejoblikethefactoryworkers.Thelivesoftheworkersweregreatlychanged.Nolongerdidtheyraisetheirownfoodormaketheirownclothing.Often,theylivedinrentedhomesorroomsratherthanintheirowncottages.Iftheywereunabletowork,theyhadnoprotection.Theworkersmightnotbeabletopaytherentorfeedthemselves.Atthattime,thegovernmentdidnothelppeoplewhowereoutofwork.TheIndustrialRevolutionmadeitpossibleforBritaintoproducemanyproductsquickly.ItgaveBritishmerchantsproductstosellallovertheworld.Itmadetheseproductscheapertobuybecauseeachworkercouldproducemore.However,theIndustrialRevolutionalsocreatedproblems.Someoftheseproblemshavestillnotbeensolved.Task7:【答案】A.NearlyOnethirdofthefactoriesinBritain.Industrialconflictwasmostmoninthosewhereworkerswereorganizedintounionswithfull-timeshopstewards.Becausehethoughtthatithadalwaysbeentheworkersagainstthemanagementanditwouldn'tworkanyotherway.B.unionofficialsoftenorderastrike,aslow-downoranovertimebaninordertoputpressureonthemanagementworkersoftengoonstriketoprotestthedismissalthesuddenstrikeswhichbeginwithoutwarning,trivialissueslikedemarcationdisputes,factorycafeteriapricesthetraditionallyadversarynatureofindustrialrelationsinBritainandthepredominance【原文】Accordingtotheresultsofasurveyconductedin1978fortheBritishGovernment,nearlyhalfofthefactoriesinBritainhadexperiencedsomeformofindustrialconflictintheprevioustwoyearsandnearlyonethirdhadexperiencedall-outstrikes.Theproportionwasevenhigherforfactoriesinwhichtheworkerswereorganizedintounionswithfull-timeshopstewards.Conflictsbetweenworkersandmanagementariseforvariousreasons.Whenwagenegotiationsbreakdown,unionofficialsoftenorderastrike,aslow-downoranovertimebaninordertoputpressureonthemanagementtoimprovetheiroffer.Indecliningindustriessuchasshipbuildingandtextiles,inwhichlayoffsareverymon,workersoftengoonstriketoprotestthedismissaloflaid-offemployees.Lesspredictableandmoredisruptivearetheso-called“l(fā)ightningstrikes-suddenstrikeswhichbeginwithoutwarning-whichareoftenrelatedtotrivialissueslikedemarcationdisputes,factorycafeteriapricesandsoon.ThefrequencywithwhichBritishworkersresorttoindustrialactionisprobablyduetotwomainfactors:thetraditionallyadversarynatureofindustrialrelationsinBritainandthepredominanceotlmilitantshopstewards.Atypicalunionleaderafewyearsagorejectedanepoch-makingofferofunionrepresentationinthemanagementofacertainlargeagainstthemanditwon'tworkanyotherway.”Unit6Task1:【答案】1)H2)H3)S4)S5)H6)S7)S8)HCaliforniahas43RepresentativesandNevadahasonlyone;buteachhastwoSenatorsTheyaresmallgroupswhichtakecareofspecialmatterssuchaseducationorforeignaffairs.ThemostimportantworkoftheCongressisoftendoneinthesegroups.TheywereallRepresentativesandthenSenatorsbeforebeingPresidentoftheUnitedStates.【原文】IntheUnitedStatesGovernment,theCongressmakesthelaws.TheCongresshastwoparts,whicharemoreorlessequalinpower.TheyareknownastheHouseofRepresentativesandtheSenate.TheHouseofRepresentativesislargerthantheSenate.TheSenatehasonly100members(knownasSenators),twofromeachstate,andtheyserveforsixyears.TheHouse,ontheotherhand,has435members(knownasHouseRepresentatives);theyareelectedeverytwoyears,andthenumberfromeachstateisdeterminedbythepopulationofthestate.Forexample,California,whichhasalargepopulation,hasforty-threerepresentatives,whilethestateofNevadahasonlyone.TheHouseandSenatearedividedintosmallgroupswhichtakecareofspecialmatterssuchaseducationorforeignaffairs.ThemostimportantworkoftheCongressisoftendoneinthesegroups,whichareballedmittees.AccordingtotheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates,aSenatormustbeatleastthirtyyearsoldandhemusthavebeenacitizenoftheUnitedStatesfornineyearsatthetimeofhiselection.TobeelectedtotheHouse,apersonmustbe25yearsoldandmusthavebeenaUnitedStatescitizenforsevenyears.Atthepresenttime,membersofCongressincludebusinessmen,farmers,teachers,andespeciallylawyers.Ingeneral,SenatorsarebetterknownthanRepresentativesbecausetheyarefewerinnumberandserveforalongertime.ManyAmericanPresidentsservedinCongressbeforetheybecamePresident.PresidentsJohnKennedy,LyndonJohnsonandRichardNixonwereallRepresentativesandthenSenatorsbeforebeingPresidentoftheUnitedStates.Task2:【答案】Itmeansthatthepeoplerulethroughrepresentativestheyelect.OnereasonisthattheConstitutioncanbeamended,orchanged.AnotherreasonisthattheConstitutionisflexible:itsbasicprinciplescanbeappliedandinterpreteddifferentlyatdifferenttimes.Itismeanttopreventanybranchfromhavingtoomuchpower.Eachbranchhascertaincontrolsovertheotherbranches.No,hedoesn't,becauseavotercanchoosecandidatesfromdifferentparties.Forexample,theycanvoteforaRepublicanPresidentandaDemocratsenator.5)TheRepublicanstendtobemoreconservativeandtohavemoresupportamongtheupperclasses,whiletheDemocratstendtobemoreliberalandtohavemoresupportamongtheworkingclassesandthepoor.6)BecausecandidatestodayoftencampaignmainlythroughbriefTVappearancesandmercials.Insteadofexplainingtheirviewsindetail,theytrytomaketheiropponentslookbad.Understandably,intheendmanyvotersdonotfeelenthusiasticaboutanycandidate.thelegislative,executive,judicialtheHouseofRepresentatives,theSenate,makelawsThePresident,administerthelaws,thePresident,theVice-President,theirstaffs,departmentsandagenciesinterpretthelaws,newlawsareinkeepingwiththeConstitution,SupremeCourt,nine,forlife【原文】TheUnitedStatesisanindirectdemocracy-thatis,thepeoplerulethroughrepresentativestheyelect.Overtime,thevotehasbeengiventomoreandmorepeople.Inthebeginning,onlywhitemenwithpropertycouldvote.Todaycitizenwhoisatleast18yearsoldcanvote.TheConstitutionTheUnitedStatesConstitution,writtenin1787,establishedthecountry'spoliticalsystemandisthebasisforitslaws.Inthe200yearsofitshistory,theUnitedStateshasgreatlygrownandchanged.YettheConstitutionworksaswelltodayaswhenitwaswritten.OnereasonisthattheConstitutioncanbeamended(forexample,theFifteenthAmendmentgaveblackAmericanstherighttovoteandtheNineteenthAmendmentgavewomentherighttovote).AnotherreasonisthattheConstitutionisflexible:itsbasicprinciplescanbeappliedandinteipreteddifferentlyatdifferenttimes.FederalismTheUnitedStateshasafederalistsystem.Itmeansthatthereareindividualstates,eachwithitsowngovernment,andthereisafederal,ornational,government.TheUSConstitutiongivescertainpowerstothefederalgovernment,otherpowerstothestategovernments,andyetotherpowerstoboth.Forexample,onlythenationalgovernmentcanprintmoney;thestatesestablishtheirownschoolsystems;andboththenationalandthestategovernmentscancollecttaxes.ThreeBranchesofGovernmentWithinthenationalgovernment,powerisdividedamongthreebranches:thelegislativebranch,theexecutivebranch,andthejudicialbranch.ThelegislativebranchconsistsofCongress,whichhastwoparts:theHouseofRepresentativesandtheSenate.Congress'smainfunctionistomakelaws.ThePresidentistheheadoftheexecutivebranchandthecountry.Theexecutivebranchadministersthelaws.InadditiontothePresident,theVice-President,andtheirstaffs,theexecutivebranchconsistsofdepartmentsandagencies.ThejudicialbranchinterpretsthelawsandmakessurethatnewlawsareinkeepingwiththeConstitution.Thejudicialbranchisrepresentedbyseverallevelsoffederalcourts.TheSupremeCourtisthemostimportantbody.Ithasninemembers,whoareappointedforlife.Thesystemofchecksandbalances,establishedbytheConstitution,ismeanttopreventanyofthethreebranchesfromhavingtoomuchpower.Eachbranchhascertaincontrolsovertheotherbranches.Forexample,Congressmakesthelaws,butthePresidentcanveto,orreject,alawandtheSupremeCourtcandecidethatthelawisunconstitutional.Two-PartySystemTheUnitedStateshastwomainpoliticalparties:theDemocraticandtheRepublicanparties.Manyothersmallerpartiesplaylittleifanyrole.VoterselectthePresident,asSenatorsRepresentativesGovernor,etc.Avotercanchoosecandidatesfromdifferentparties,Forexample,avotermayvoteforRepublicansforPresidentandVice-PresidentandaDemocratforSenator,sothePresidentdoesnothavetobefromthepattyhasamajorityinCongress.Inrecentyears,infact,votershavetendedtochooseRepublicanPresdentsandDemocraticpeople.TherearenocleardifferencesbetweentheRepublicanandDemocraticparties.Ingeneral,theRepublicanstendtobemoreconservativeandtohavemoresupportamongtheupperclasses,whiletheDemocratstendtobemoreliberalandtohavemoresupportamongtheworkingclassandthepoor.RecentTrendsInthe20thcentury,associetyhasbeemoreplex,governmenthastakenamuckmoreactiverole.However,manyAmericans