胡壯麟語言學教程筆記、重點全解

《語言學教程》重難點學習提示第一章語言的性質(zhì)語言的定義：語言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多產(chǎn)性、移位、文化傳遞和互換性）；語言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、詢問、表達主觀感情、喚起對方的感情和言語行為）；語言的起源（神授說，人造說，進化說）等。第二章語言學語言學定義；研究語言的四大原則（窮盡、一致、簡潔、客觀）；語言學的基本概念（口語與書面語、共時與歷時、語言與言學、語言能力與言行運用、語言潛勢與語言行為）；普通語言學的分支（語音、音位、語法、句法、語義）；語言學的應用（語言學與語言教學、語言與社會、語言與文字、語言與心理學、人類語言學、神經(jīng)語言學、數(shù)理語言學、計算語言學）等。第三章語音學發(fā)音器官的英文名稱；英語輔音的發(fā)音部位和發(fā)音方法；語音學的定義；發(fā)音語音學；聽覺語音學；聲學語音學；元音及輔音的分類；嚴式與寬式標音等。第四章音位學音位理論；最小對立體；自由變異；互補分布；語音的相似性；區(qū)別性特征；超語段音位學；音節(jié)；重音（詞重音、句子重音、音高和語調(diào)）等。第五章詞法學詞法的定義；曲折詞與派生詞；構(gòu)詞法（合成與派生）詞素的定義；詞素變體；自由詞素；粘著詞素（詞根，詞綴和詞干）等。第六章詞匯學詞的定義；語法詞與詞匯詞；變詞與不變詞；封閉詞與開放詞；詞的辨認；習語與搭配。第七章句法句法的定義；句法關(guān)系；結(jié)構(gòu)；成分；直接成分分析法；并列結(jié)構(gòu)與從屬結(jié)構(gòu)；句子成分；范疇（性，數(shù)，格）；一致；短語，從句，句子擴展等。第八章語義學語義的定義；語義的有關(guān)理論；意義種類（傳統(tǒng)、功能、語用）；里奇的語義分類；詞匯意義關(guān)系（同義、反義、下義）；句子語義關(guān)系。第九章語言變化語言的發(fā)展變化（詞匯變化、語音書寫文字、語法變化、語義變化）；第十章語言、思維與文化語言與文化的定義；薩丕爾-沃夫假說；語言與思維的關(guān)系；語言與文化的關(guān)系；中西文化的異同。第十一章語用學語用學的定義；語義學與語用學的區(qū)別；語境與意義；言語行為理論（言內(nèi)行為、言外行為和言后行為）；合作原則。語言的普遍特征:任意性arbitrariness雙層結(jié)構(gòu)duality既由聲音和意義結(jié)構(gòu)多產(chǎn)性productivity移位性displacement:我們能用語言可以表達許多不在場的東西文化傳播性culturaltransmission2。語言的功能：傳達信息功能informative人濟功能：interpersonal行事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive寒暄功能：Phatic娛樂功能recreatinal元語言功能metalingual語言學linguistics:包括六個分支語音學Phonetics音位學phonology形態(tài)學Morphology句法學syntax語義學semantics語用學pragmatics現(xiàn)代結(jié)構(gòu)主義語言學創(chuàng)始人：Ferdinanddesaussure提出語言學中最重要的概念對之一：語言與言語languageandparole，語言之語言系統(tǒng)的整體，言語則只待某個個體在實際語言使用環(huán)境中說出的具體話語語法創(chuàng)始人：NoamChomsky提出概念語言能力與語言運用competenceandperformanceWhichofthefollowingstatementscanbeusedtodescribedisplacement.oneoftheuniquepropertiesoflanguage:wecaneasilyteachourchildrentolearnacertainlanguagewecanuseboth'shu'and'tree'todescribethesamething.wecanuselanguagetorefertosomethingnotpresentwecanproducesentencesthathaveneverbeenheardbefore.Whatisthemostimportantfunctionoflanguage?interpersonalphaticinformativemetallingualThefunctionofthesentence"Aniceday,isn'tit?"is__ainformativephaticdirectiveperformativeThedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformanceisproposedby__asaussurehallidaychomskythepragueschoolWhoputforwardthedistinctionbetweenlanguageandparole?saussurechomskyhallidaydanomymous第二節(jié)語音學發(fā)音器官由聲帶thevocalcor和三個回聲腔組成輔音consonantthereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltract.輔音的發(fā)音方式爆破音completeobstruction鼻音nasals破裂音plosives部分阻塞輔音partialobstruction擦音fricatives破擦音affricates輔音清濁特征voicing輔音的送氣特征aspiration元音vowel分類標準舌翹位置，舌高和嘴唇的形狀6雙元音diphthongs有元音過渡vowelglidesArticulatoryphoneticsmainlystudies__.thephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeechtheperceptionofsoundsthecombinationofsoundstheproductionofsoundsThedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesin__theplaceofarticulationtheobstructionfairstreamthepositionofthetonguetheshapeofthelipsWhatisthecommonfactorofthethreesounds:p,ktvoicelessspreadvoicednasalWhatphoneticfeaturedistinguishthepinpleaseandthepinspeak?voicingaspirationroundnessnasalityWhichofthefollowingisnotadistinctivefeatureinEnglish?voicingnasalapproximationaspirationThephonologicalfeaturesoftheconsonantkare__voicedstopvoicelessstopvoicedfricativevoicelessfricativepisdivverentfromkin__themannerofarticulationtheshapeofthelipsthevibrationofthevocalcordsthepalceofarticualtionVibrationofthevocalcordsresultsin__aspirationnasalityobstructionvoicing第三節(jié)音位學phonology音位學與語音學的區(qū)別：語音學著重于語音的自然屬性，主要關(guān)注所有語言中人可能發(fā)出的所有聲音；音位學則強調(diào)語音的社會功能，其對象是某一種語言中可以用來組合成詞句的那些語音。音位phoneme：最小語音單位音位變體allophones:讀音差別對比性分布：如果兩個音段出現(xiàn)在同一個語音環(huán)境中，而且產(chǎn)生了兩個不同的單詞，互補性分布；如果兩個基本相似的音段絕不會出現(xiàn)在相同的語音環(huán)境中，那么它們之間就是互補性分布的關(guān)系，如送氣p絕不會出現(xiàn)在s之后，不送氣的p絕不會出現(xiàn)在詞首音節(jié)syllable，分為節(jié)首onset，節(jié)峰peak，節(jié)尾coda輔音群:一般作為音節(jié)節(jié)首的輔音群不能超過三個福音，節(jié)尾不能超過4個最小語音對minimalpairsIntroductionWhatisLanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.WhatisLinguistics（語言學）Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.3.SomeBasicDistinctions（區(qū)分）inLinguisticsSpeechandWritingOnegeneralprinciple（原則）oflinguisticanalysisistheprimacyofspeechoverwriting.Writinggiveslanguagenewscope（范疇）andusesthatspeechdoesnothave.Descriptive（描述性）orPrescriptive（說明性）Alinguisticstudyisdescriptiveifitdescribesandanalysesfactsobserved;itisprescriptiveifittriestolaydownrulesfor"correct"behavior.Synchronic（共時）andDiachronic（歷時）StudiesThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudyandThedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Langue（語言）andParole（言語）ThisisadistinctionmadebytheSwisslinguistF.DeSaussure（索緒爾）earlylastcentury.languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandparolereferstotheactualized（實際的）language,orrealizationoflangue.Competence（能力）andPerformance（彳亍為）Competenceistheideallanguageuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances（發(fā)聲）.TheScopeofLinguisticsGenerallinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageasawhole.Phonetics（語音學）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription.Phonology（音韻學）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthesoundpatternsoflanguages.Morphology（詞法）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestheformofwords.Syntax（句法）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestherulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentences.Semantics（語義學）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthemeaningoflanguage.Appliedlinguistics（應用語言學）isthestudyoftheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.Sociolinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.Psycholinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthemind.HistoricalLinguistics（歷史語言學）isthestudyoflanguagechanges.Anthropologicallinguistics（人文語言學）usesthetheoriesandmethodsofanthropologytostudylanguagevariationandlanguageuseinrelationtotheculturalpatternsandbeliefsofman.Neurolinguistics（神經(jīng)語言學）studiestheneurologicalbasisoflanguagedevelopmentanduseinhumanbeings.Mathematicallinguistics（數(shù)學語言學）studiesthemathematicalfeaturesoflanguage,oftenemployingmodelsandconceptsofmathematics.Computationallinguistics（計算語言學）isanapproachtolinguisticsinwhichmathematicaltechniquesandconceptsareapplied,oftenwiththeaidofacomputer.Phonetics（語音學）scopeofphoneticsSpeechsoundsmaybestudiedfromdifferentangles,thuswehaveatleastthreebranchesofphonetics:■Articulatoryphonetics（_^^曰l口曰學）wemayexaminethewayinwhichaspeechsoundisproducedtodiscoverwhichvocalorgansareinvolvedandhowtheycoordinate（協(xié)調(diào)）intheprocess.Auditoryphonetics（聽覺語音學）wemaylookintotheimpressionaspeakermakesonthehearerasmediated（調(diào)節(jié)）bytheear,theauditorynerv。（神經(jīng)）andthebrain.Acousticphonetics（聲學語音學）westudythephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,astransmitted（傳送）betweenmouthandear.ThevocalorgansThevocalorgansmaybeviewedasconsistingofthreeparts,theinitiatoroftheair-stream,（氣流發(fā)生器官）theproducerofvoice（聲音發(fā)生器官）andtheresonatingcavities.（聲音共振器官）Consonants（輔音）Placesofarticulation（發(fā)音部位）：bilabial,（雙唇）Labiodentals,（唇齒）dental,（齒）alveolar,（齒齦）retroflex,（卷舌）palate-alveolar,（上齒齦）palatal,（上顎）velar,（軟腭）uvular,（小舌）glottal（聲門）Mannersofarticulation:plosive,（暴破）nasal,（鼻音）trill,（顫音）lateral,（邊音）fricative,（摩擦）approximant,（近似音）affricate（破擦）Vowels（元音）Theclassificationofvowels:theheightoftongueraising（high,mid,low）,thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue（front,central,back）,andthedegreeofliprounding（rounded,unrounded）Phonology（音韻學）phonemes（音素）：adistinctive（有區(qū)別的）soundinalanguage.Allophones（音位變體）：Thenondistinctivesoundsaremembersofthesamephoneme.Minimalpairs（最小對立體）：wordformswhichdifferfromeachotheronlybyonesound.Freevariation（自由變異）：Iftwosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironment（環(huán)境），theydoesnotproduceadifferentwordform,butmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesameword.Complementarydistribution（補充分類）：Notallthespeechsoundsoccurinthesameenvironment.Whentwosoundsneveroccurinthesameenvironment.6.Suprasegmentalphonology（超音段音位）：thestudyofphonologicalproperties（性質(zhì)）ofunitslagerthanthesegment-phoneme.Theyaresyllable（音節(jié)），stress,（重音）wordstress,sentencestress.pitch（音調(diào)）andintonation（語調(diào)）.Morphology（詞法）inflection（構(gòu)形法）：thegrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes.（屈折詞綴）Word-formation（構(gòu)詞）：theprocesses（過程）ofwordvariationssignalinglexicalrelationships.（表明詞法關(guān)系）Theyarecompound（合成）andderivation（派生）.Morpheme（詞素）：thesmallestunitintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent.Allomorph（同質(zhì)異象變體）：somemorphemeshaveconsiderablevariation,forinstance,alternateshapesorphoneticforms.Typesofmorphemes:Theyareroots,（詞根）affix（詞綴）andstem（詞干）.Lexicon（語言詞匯）：initsmostgeneralsense,issynonymouswithvocabulary.Closed-classwords（封閉性）andopen-classwords（開放性）：theformerwhosemembershipisfixedorlimitedandthelatterwhosemembershipisinprinciple（實際上）indefiniteorunlimited.Wordclass（詞性）：Itdisplaysawiderrangeofmorepreciselydefinedclasses.Lexeme（詞位）：thesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofalanguagethatcanbedistinguishedfromothersmallerunits.Idiom（習語，成語）：Mostphrasallexemesareidioms.Itisespeciallytrueforasequenceofwords（詞序）whichissemantically（語義上）andoftensyntactically（句法上）restricted.（g艮制）Collocation（搭配）：thehabitual（習慣的）co-occurrences（同時出現(xiàn)）ofindividuallexicalitems.Syntax（句法）Positionalrelationorwordorder（詞序）：thesequential（順序）arrangementofwordsinalanguage.Constructionorconstituent（句子結(jié)構(gòu)）：theoverallprocessofinternal（內(nèi)部）organizationofagrammaticalunit.Syntacticfunction（句法功能）：therelationshipbetweenalinguisticformandotherpartsofthelinguisticpatterninwhichitisused.Thenamesoffunctionsareexpressedintermsofsubjects,objects,predicates,modifiers,（修飾語）complements（補語），etc.Category（范疇）：Itreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,e.g.noun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbphrase,etc.Thecategoriesofthenounincludenumber,gender,caseandcountability.Phrase:asingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalofclause.Clause:agroupofwordswithitsownsubjectandpredicate,ifitisincludedinalargersentence.Sentence:Itistheminimumpartoflanguagethatexpressesacompletethought.SemanticsConceptualismormentalism（概念主義）：FollowingF.DeSaussure（索學爾）'s"sign"theory,thelinguisticsignissaidtoconsistofasignifier（所指）andsignified（被指）,i.e.,asoundimageandaconcept,likedbyapsychological（心理的）"associative"bond.（相關(guān)聯(lián)系）Mechanism（機械主義）：Somelinguists,Bloomfield,（布魯費爾德）forexample,turnedtosciencetocounter（反）-acttheprecioustheoriesandthisleadstowhatcallthemechanisticapproach（方法）.Thenatureofthistheoryhasnothingtodowiththescientificstudyofmentalphenomena.（智力現(xiàn)象）Contextualism（語境主義）：Itisbasedonthepresumption（假定）thatonecanderivemeaningfromorreduceittoobservablecontext.Behaviorism（彳亍為主義）：Behavioristsattempttodefine（定義）themeaningofalanguageformas"thesituation（情景）inwhichthespeakerutters（說話）itandtheresponse（反應）itcallsforthinthehearer."functionalism（功能主義）：functionalistsasrepresented（代表）bythePragueschool（布拉格學派）linguistsandneo-Firthian（新弗斯）linguists,approachtheproblemfromanentirelyneworientation（方法）.Theyargue（爭辯）thatmeaningcouldonlybeinterpreted（解釋）fromitsuseorfunctioninsociallife.Senserelationships:Whilereferencedealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelements,words,sentences,etc.,andthenon-linguisticworldofexperience,senserelatestothecomplexsystemofrelationshipsthatholdbetweenthelinguisticelementsthemselves.Theyincludesynonymy（同義詞）,antonym（反義詞）,hyponymy（下層次）Polysemy（一詞多義）andHomonymy（同音異義詞）Semanticanalysis:Itincludes1）componential（成分）analysiswhichdefinesthemeaningofalexicalelementintermsofsemanticcomponents.（意義成分）2）predication（表述）analysisinwhichthemeaningofasentenceisnotmerelythesumofthemeaningsofthewordswhichcomposeit.3）relationalcomponentsinwhichthesemanticanalysisofsomewordspresentsacomplicatedpicture,becausetheyshowrelationsbetweentwoandperhapsmoreterms.Languagevariation（語言變化）Lexicalchange（詞匯的變化）：changesinlexis.Invention:（新造詞）newentities.QQ]、Compounding=>合成詞）Newwordsaresometimesconstructedbycombiningtwooldwords.Blending:（混合詞）：Itisarelativelycomplexformofcomp