英語寫作PPT展示Refutation

Refutation

WhatHowExampleRefutationisthepartofanargumentwhereinaspeakerorwriteranticipatesandcountersopposingpointsofview.InformallogicAnobjection(alsocalledexpostulationorrefutation),isareasonarguingagainstpremise,lemma,ormaincontention.DefinitionGreco-RomansOriginTruth

doesnotfear

contention.Themorethe

truth

is

debated,thecleareritbecomes.Plato&AristotlePythagoreanschoolStoicismAristotle's

schoolConvinceyouraudiencethattheothersideiswrong.Convinceyouraudiencethatyoursideisright.GoalRefutetheclaimTypesRefutetheevidenceRefutethereasoningRelationshipIndirectrefutationRefutereasoningRefuteevidenceDirectrefutationRefutetheclaimStructureIntroductionBodyConclusionBackground/HookRefutation1Refutation2Refutation3RestatethesisAskquestions/StatethesisSummarizemainpointsPreviewthetargetpointsStrongclosingComparisonwithothersArgumentRefutationPersuasionNarrationDescriptionExpositionPersuasionRefutationContentTotellastoryTodescribe

sthToinformyouraudienceof

sthToconvinceyouraudiencethatyour

sideisrightToprovetheothersideis

wrongor

lessrightLanguageFeatureVividSimpleFluentClearDetailedFluentPreciseCommonConciseConciseConvincingLogicalConciseRigorousLogicalComparisonExerciseTherefutationisasuccessorfailure?Conversation1.Tom:I’msuregladmynephewgotanewcar.Thatotheronehewasdrivinghadterriblebrakesandnowindshieldwipers.Jerry:Yournephewdidn’tgetanewcar.Thatcaryouseehimdrivingishisroommate’s.(Success)Conversation2.Susan:Portlandisabout400milesfromChico.

Bob:No,it’snot.It’s389miles.(Failure)Conversation3.Fred:Angelsdon’texist.

Donna:Suretheydo.Lookatallthebookswrittenaboutangelsthatarebestsellers!Lookatthefaiththatsomanypeopleplaceinangels!Lookatallthegreatworksofartthatdealwithangels!Howcanyoupossiblequestionthesincereconvictionsofsomanypeople?(Failure)Conversation4.Don:ConventionalweaponscausedmuchmoredamageinWorldWarIIthanatomicweapons.

Martha:That’simpossible.Everyoneknowsthatatomicbombscausemoredamagethanconversationalbombs.(Failure)/item.htm?spm=a230r.1.14.339.ckmwG7&id=37913027016&qq-pf-to=pcqq.c2cWhatHowExampleHowtowriteIntroductionHowtowriteBodyHowtowriteConclusionHowwewriteRefutationTheintroductionofrefutationessayshouldincludethefollowing:Background;Asummaryoftheargumentyouarerefuting;Anacknowledgeofthestrengthsoftheargument,ifany;Theaspectsoftheargumentthatyoubelieveareflawed;HowtoWriteIntroductionHowtoWriteIntroduction2.BecharmingYoucanwintheattentionandgoodwillofyourreadersbytellinganinterestingstory,quotingagoodcommentontheissue.Youshouldavoidpomposity,andshowconcernforyourreaders.Youshouldpresentyourselfasfair-mindedandgood-natured.HowtowriteIntroductionHowtowriteBodyHowtowriteConclusionHowwewriteRefutationWhatopposingargumentscanbeattackedThreetypesoforganizationFourstepsinrefutationLanguageofrefutation

HowtoWritebodyWhatOpposingArgumentsCanbeAttacked

HowtoWritebodyArgumentsaretheresultofreasoningaboutevidenceAttacksonevidenceAttacksonreasoningAttacksonclaimsTwobroadtestsofevidenceare:Istheevidencecorrect?Istheevidenceadequatetoprovetheargument?AttacksOnevidenceThenext……MoreparticularcriteriafortestingevidenceSo-calledAuthority

leansonthepopularityofsomeonewhomayhavelittleknowledgeoftheissueorproduct.

Example:

CNN'sLouDobbs,regularlyusesafigureof"20million"whendiscussingthenumberofillegalaliensonhisbroadcast"LouDobbsTonight.“However,thePEWCenter,amoreobjectivesourceplacesthenumberat11million.AttacksOnevidence22Flawedstatisticaldata

smallsampleandspecialsample;thetotalnumberofsamplesisunknown;

Example:Therewere13gun-relatedfatalitiesamongchildreneveryday,butdidn’ttelltheexactagerange.

AttacksOnevidence23Ignorethechangeofconditions

withoutconsideringthechangeoftime,spaceandotherexternalconditionswhichmayleadtothealterationofevidence.

Example:ConventionalweaponscausedmuchmoredamageinworldWarIIthanatomicweapons,soconventionalweaponsaremorelethal.However,it’sundertwodifferentcircumstances.AttacksOnevidence24Suppressedevidence

hidesomeaspectswhichisagainsttheclaim

Example:Anadvertisementclaimsaparticularcarhasmorehorsepowerand0-60speed,butfailstomentionitalsodoesworseincrashtests,andhasworsereliability.

AttacksOnevidence25Self-contradictoryevidenceIfyousayorwritesomethingthatis

self-contradictory,youmaketwostatementswhichcannotbothbetrue..

Example:BushhasblockedprescriptiondrugimportsfromCanadaoversafetyconcerns,buthealsosaidtheU.S.couldrelyonCanadaformorefluvaccine.AttacksOnevidence26Negativeevidence

theevidenceisnotrightormoralinacivilizedsociety,isevil-minded,immatureviciousorharmful,issexistordiscriminatory,orculturallyunacceptable.

Example:It’snotnecessarytoabolishdeathpenaltyinChinabecausethepopulationofChinaissolarge.However,it’sevil!AttacksOnevidence27Atypicalevidence

theevidenceisnottypicaltoprovetheclaim

Example:Anadforamiracledietofferstestimonialsasproof,butfailstoprovideacontrolledclinicalstudytoprovethedietreallyworks.AttacksOnevidence28WhatOpposingArgumentsCanbeAttacked

HowtoWritebodyArgumentsaretheresultofreasoningaboutevidenceAttacksonevidenceAttacksonreasoningAttacksonclaims29Hastygeneralizations

Arrivingataconclusionwithoutenoughevidence.

Example:LiHuaandWangPing,whoaretwoAsian-Americanstudents,dowellinmath,soallAsian-Americanstudentsarebetterinmath.AttacksOnreasoningBandwagonThinking

Claimingthatmostpeopleagreesoitmustberight.

Example:

It’swidelyacceptedthatFrenchpeoplearemoreromantic,soFrenchmustberomantic.

AttacksOnreasoning31Singlecause-effect

Claimingthatonlyoneeventcausedanother.

Example:WhenIsatdownatthecomputeritstoppedworking,soImusthavedonesomethingwrong.AttacksOnreasoning32Noconnection

Thecausedoesnotrelatetotheeffect.

Example:Let’snottakeXiaoJingtengonourpicnic.Everytimewetakehimoutwithus,itrains.AttacksOnreasoning33Either/Or

Suggestingonlytwoalternativeswhiletheissuemaybemuchmorecomplex.

Example:

Bush:“eitheryou’reforAmericaoryou’refortheterrorists”AttacksOnreasoning34CircularReasoning

Restatingindifferentwordswhathasalreadybeenstated.

Example:Xiaomingisabachelorbecausehehasn’tgotmarried.AttacksOnreasoning35FalseAnalogy

TheargumentassertsthatiffactsrelatingtoAandfactsrelatingtoBarealikeinsomeessentialrespects,theywillbealikeinanother,orother,essentialrespects.

Example:Studentsshouldbeallowedtolookattheirtextbooksduringexaminations.Afterall,surgeonshaveX-raystoguidethemduringanoperation,lawyershavebriefstoguidethemduringatrial,carpentershaveblueprintstoguidethemwhentheyarebuildingahouse.AttacksOnreasoning361.Sequentialattack（argument1-argument2-argument3）WhatopposingargumentscanbeattackedThreetypesoforganizationFourstepsinrefutationLanguageofrefutationHowweWritebody372.PrimaryandsecondaryattacksThreetypesoforganizationHowweWritebodyrefutationofprimaryargument

refutationofsecondaryargument

383.ConcessiontypeattackAisfalseevenifAisTrueBisfalseEvenifA&BistrueCisfalseNottomentionthatA&BareallfalseThreetypesoforganizationWritebodyHowweTomakethebodypartcoherentandconsistentRebuttalofAisnotnecessarilytobethefirst,butit’scriticaltofindoutthelogicalconnectioninthewholeoriginalarticletoberefutedVideoExamplesVideo1Video2WritebodyHowweThreetypesoforganization401.Theargumenttoberefutedanditsrelationshiptothecaseasawhole.HowweWritebodyExample:Indevelopinganeedforpricecontrols,theeffectofinflationhasbeeninjurioustothewelfareoftheAmericanlaborer.Now,ifthisweretrue,theaffirmativewouldindeedhaveastrongargument.WhatopposingargumentscanbeattackedThreetypesoforganizationFourstepsinrefutationLanguageofrefutation412.Statehowyouwillrefutetheargument.FourstepsinrefutationHowweWritebodyExample:However,itcanbedemonstratedthattheaffirmativehasreachedanerroneousconclusionbyneglectingthemostrelevantaspectsoftheUnitedStateseconomicpicture.423.Refutationwithsupportingevidence..Example:HastheUnitedStateslaborerbeenhurtbyinflation?Onthecontrary,accordingtotheSecretaryoftheTreasury,hisbuyingpowerhasgoneupfortypercentinthepasttwentyyears,andaccordingtoastudyconductedbythelabororganizationsthemselves(AFL-CIOreport),“Thelaborer,eventhoughpriceshavegoneup,stillisinapositiontobuymoreofthedesiredgoodsonthemarketthaneverbefore.”FourstepsinrefutationHowweWritebody434.Theeffectoftherefutationandtransitiontocontinuedrefutation.Example:Thusweseethattheaffirmativeneedargument,anappealtothewelfareoflabor,isrefutedbythelaborleadersthemselves.Now,letusproceedtotheirotherneedargumentstoseeiftheyarerealorlargelyimaginary.FourstepsinrefutationHowweWritebody44Makethemeansofcommunication-language-asclearaspossible.

AvoidvaguetermsUsethevocabularyofdebatebyreferringtoissues,arguments,andevidence.HowweWritebodyWhatopposingargumentscanbeattackedThreetypesoforganizationFourstepsinrefutationLanguageofrefutation45【Avoid】Thepointhasbeenbroughtup.【Because】Vague.Callingeverythingapoint,whetheritisanissue,andargument,orevidence,isprobablythemostcommonlanguageerrorindebate.Byitselfitisvague;whenitisoveruseditleadstototalconfusion.【Useinstead】“Thecontentionofworkabilityhasbeenattackedwiththeargumentthat”LanguageofrefutationHowweWritebody46【Avoid】“Asourquoteshaveproved”【Because】Vague.Beconcretebymakingspecificreferences.【Useinstead】“Ontheotherhand,bothProfessorX,ofWhiteUniversity,andtheDirectoroftheNationalScienceFoundationhaveproved”LanguageofrefutationHowweWritebody【Avoid】“Theysaid”or“Wesaid”【Because】Vagueandclumsy.【Useinstead】“Thefirstaffirmativespeakerasserted”or“MissSmith,inherfirstconstructivespeech”LanguageofrefutationHowweWritebody【Avoid】“Westandon”【Because】Clumsy.【Useinstead】“Oursupportofthiscontentionhasbeen”LanguageofrefutationHowweWritebody【Avoid】“Whereistheirproof?”and“Wehaveofferedproof.”【Because】Clumsyanderroneous.Proofisoftenconfusedwithevidence.【Useinstead】“Whereisthesupportingevidencetoprove”and“Wehaveofferedevidencetosupport”LanguageofrefutationHowweWritebodyBonus!!!LanguageofrefutationHowweWritebodyTypicallanguageusedinrefutationAlthoughitiswidely/commonly/generallyheld/felt/agreed/acceptedthat...,itisunlikelytobetruethat...Althoughitiscommonlyheldthat

successwillbringpeoplemoneyandstatus,itisunlikelytobetruethatitwillbeadesirablegoalforanyone.Consideringthegreatstresstheyhavetolivewith,andtheirshorterlifespans,greaterloneliness,andrelativeincapacityforcommunityorloveitentails,itisconceivablethatnoteveryonefindsanenterpriserequiringsuchsacrificeisworthwhatitcosts.雖然大多數人認為成功能給人帶來金錢和地位，但是每個人都渴望成功卻不一定是事實。想一想為了成功所要承受的緊張壓力，壽命的可能縮短，巨大的孤獨，不能有常人的感情交流和愛情。可以想象，不是所有的人都認為為追求一個目標付出這么多的犧牲是值得的ItisPerhaps/Probably/maybe/verytruethat...,butonevital/critical/essentialpoint/factisbeingleftoutofourconsciousness/analysis/considerationItisprobablytruethatinstitutingsanctionsmaysignificantlyreducethefrequencyof"wrong"speechesoncampus,butonevitalpointisbeingleftoutofourthinking:thesemeasuresposeaseriousthreattotheveryideaoftheuniversityandthespiritofacademicfreedom.采取制裁措施可能會顯著地減少校園的“錯誤”言論，但是有一點我們沒有考慮進去：這些措施對大學的本身宗旨以及學術自由精神構成了威脅。TypicallanguageusedinrefutationAtfirstthought/glance,/Onthesurface,Onthefaceofit,it/thismayseema(n)sound/attractive/palatable/goodidea/suggestion/possibility/solutionbutonsecondthoughts/oncloseexamination/consideringitindetail/carefullyweighingitinthebalanceI/wefind....Onthesurface,thecommentsmadebymenaboutwomen'sabilitiesseemreasonable.Butoncloseexamination,thecommentsrevealtherealcontemptthatmenfeelforwomenandthebasichostilitythatmenhavetowardwomen.

表面上，男人對婦女的能力所作的評論似乎有點道理，但仔細檢查一下，這個評論反映了男人對婦女的真正蔑視和對婦女的態(tài)度基本上是對立的。TypicallanguageusedinrefutationSomepeopleargue/claimthat....Butmoreoftenthannot,theopposite/reverseis/usually/seemstobethecase/trueSomepeoplesuggestthatamanagerorahighexecutivecanspeakwellandlogicallybecauseoftheopportunitiesofhisposition.Thatisputtingthecartbeforethehorse.Moreoftenthannot,quitethereverseistrue.Itishisskillinwordsthathelpshimtogethisjob.Thatis,ifyouconsciouslyincreaseyourvocabularyyouwillunconsciouslyraiseyourselftoamoreimportantstationinlife.Ofcourse,thenewandhigherpositionyouhavewonwill,inturn,giveyouabetteropportunityforfurtherenrichingyourlanguage.Itisabeautifulandsuccessfulcycle.

有的人說一個經理或一個高級管理人員之所以口才好，講話有邏輯是因為他的職位給他創(chuàng)造了這樣的條件。這就有點本末倒置了。許多情況下，事實正好相反。他的詞語能力正好幫助他獲得了他的這個職位。也就是說如果你注意擴大你的詞匯，你就會在無意中提高生活中的地位。當然你得到的一個新的更重要的職位會反過來為你進一步豐富你的語言創(chuàng)造好的條件。這是一個良性的成功的循環(huán)。TypicallanguageusedinrefutationHowtowriteIntroductionHowtowriteBodyHowtowriteConclusionHowwewriteRefutationHowtowriteconclusion4.Statisticalfindings:datashowinghowmuch,howmany,orhowoften—canbeconvincing.5.Personalexperiencesorobservations:Sometimestheycandeliveranargumentativemessagemoreforcefullythananyotherkindofevidence.Personalexperienceusuallyreinforcesbutdoesnotreplaceotherkindsofevidences.HowtoendRestartyourthesisindifferentwaysLookintothefutureMakefunofyouropponentsSummarizeyourmajorpointsifyourpaperislongHowtowriteconclusion

RestateyourthesisindifferentwaysLookintothefutureMakefunofyouropponentsSummarizeyourmajorpointsifyourpaperislongTipsforYourEssayDon'tmakeupevidenceCiteyoursourcesMakeanoutlineAvoidemotionallanguageKnowthedifferencebetweenalogicalconclusionandanemotionalpointofviewWhatour

customerssayWhatHowExampleToomuchConcepts!!!Istrike!PPTAsampleessay…soThenextoneis61Nature

examineswhetherandhowanathlete'sperformancehistoryandthelimitsofhumanphysiologycouldbeusedtocatchdopers.sampleessayYe’sperformancewasanomalous(異常)withanimprovementabout7seconds(6.72s).Acleandrugtestduringcompetitioncouldnotruleoutthepossibilityofdoping(興奮劑).Performancecouldbeusedtonabdopers.Anathletewillbedisciplinedsimplyforperformingtoowell.OUTLINEOFREFUTATIONIntroductionBody1.Refute:thedataof“7seconds”2.Refute:“anomalous”improvement3.Refute:compareRyanLochte’slast50metrestoYe’s4.Refute:anotherexampleofcherry-picking5.Refute:adrugtestcannotruleoutthepossibilityofdoping6.Refute:Callawayfailedtomentionout-of-competitiondrugtestConclusionIntroductionpart

FROMLAIJIANG,DepartmentofChemistry,UniversityofPennsylvania

Itisashametosee

Nature

—whichnearlyallscientists,includingmyself,regardasoneofthemostprestigiousandinfluentialphysical-sciencemagazines—publishathinlyveiledbiasedarticlelikethis.Granted,thisisnotapeer-reviewedscientificarticleanddidnotgothroughthescrutinyofpickingreferees.Buttoserveasachannelforthegeneralpopulacetobeintouchwithandappreciatescience,theauthorsandeditorsshouldatleastpresentthereaderswithfactswithinthepropercontext,whichtheyblatantlyfailedtodo.Background/HookBodypart

First,toidentifyYe’sperformanceincrease,EwenCallawaycomparedherOlympic400-metreIMtimewithherperformanceattheWorldChampionshipsin2011(4:28.43and4:35.15,respectively)andconcludedthatshehadan“anomalous”improvementofaround7seconds(6.72s).Infact,herpreviouspersonalbestwas4:33.79atthe

AsianGamesin2010.Thisleadstoanimprovementof5.38seconds.Inasportingeventinwhich0.1scanbethedifferencebetweenthegoldandsilvermedal,Iseenoreasonfor5.38stobetreatedas7s.

ReviewthewrongfactsListfactsYourargumentEffectofyourrefutationonopponents’casep1Bodypart

Second,aspreviouslypointedout,Yeisonly16yearsoldandherbodyisstilldeveloping.Betteringoneselfby5secondsovertwoyearsmayseemimpossibleforanadultswimmer,butitcertainlyhappensamongyoungsters.

AninterviewwithAustraliangoldmedallistIanThorperevealedthathis400-metrefreestyletimeimprovedby5secondsbetweentheagesof15and16.Forregularpeople,includingCallaway,itmaybehardtoimaginewhataneliteswimmercanachieveasheorshematuresandundergoesscientificandpersistenttraining.

Butjumpingtotheconclusionthatitis“anomalous”basedon‘Ohthat’ssotoughIcannotimagineitisreal’ishardlysound.ListfactsYourargumentEffectofyourrefutationonopponents’casep2BodypartThird,tocompareRyanLochte’slast50metrestoYe’sisatextbookexampleof‘cherry-picking’yourdata.Yes,LochtewasslowerthanYeinthelast50metres,butLochtehadahugeleadinthefirst300metres,sohechosenottopushhimselftoohardandtoconservehisenergyforlater.Ye,ontheotherhand,wastrailingbehindafterthefirst300metresandreliedonfreestyle,inwhichshehasanedge,towintherace.

Failingtomentionthisstrategicdifference,aswellasthefactthatLochteis23.25secondsfaster(4:05.18)thanYeoverall,createstheillusionthatawomanswamfasterthanthebestmaninthesamesport,whichsoundsimpossible.Puttingasidethegenderargument,Ibelievethisisstillaleadingquestionthatimpliestothereaderthatthereissomethingfishygoingon.cherry-pickingListfactsYourargumentEffectofyourrefutationonopponents’casep3BodypartFourthisanotherexampleofcherry-picking.Inthesameevent,therearefourmaleswimmerswhoswamfasterthanbothLochter(29.10s)andYe(28.93s)inthefinal50metres:KosukeHagino(28.52s),MichaelPhelps(28.44s),YuyaHorihata(27.87s)andThomasFraser-Holmes(28.35s).Asitturnsout,ifwearejusttalkingaboutthelast50metresina400-metreIM,LochterisnottheexampleIwouldhaveusedifIweretheauthor.WhatkindofscientificrigorousnessisCallawaytryingtodemonstratehere?IsitlogicalthatifLochteristhechampion,weshouldassumethatheleadsineverysplit?Thatwouldbeaterriblewaytoteachthepublichowscienceworks.cherry-pickingListfactsYourargumentEffectofyourrefutationonopponents’casep4BodypartFifthistheissueIopposethemost