語言學(xué)第二章

語言學(xué)第二章第一頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日TheStudyof

SoundClassificationandtranscription

Outline2.0.Introduction2.1.Speechproductionandperception2.2.Whatisphonetics?2.3.Threebranches:2.4.Howhumanproducesspeechsounds?2.5.Phoneticfeatures:voiced/voiceless;nasal/oral;elision/assimilation2.6.Consonants&Vowels2.7.Phonetictranscription第二頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日

2.0Introduction

Duringyourfreshmen’syear,bytakingtheEnglishPronunciationandIntonationcourse,youhaveacquiredsomebasicknowledgeofthesoundsoflanguage,suchas(1)Englishphonemes(音素)(ClassificationofEnglishVowels(20)andConsonants(28):)FrontVowels:/i:,i,e,?/;Backvowels:/a:,o,o:,u,u:/Centralvowels:/v,?,?:/Diphthongs:/ei,ai,oi,i?,ε?,u?,?u,au/;Plosiveconsonants:/p,b,t,d,k,g/Fricativeconsonants:/f,v;θ,th;s,z;sh,?;r,h/Affricateconsonants:/tsh,dij;tr,dr;ts,dz/Nasalconsonants:/m,n,ng/Lateralconaonants:/l/Semi-vowels:/w,j/第三頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日

2.0Introduction(2)soundclusters;(3)impleteplosion,nasalandlateralplosion;(4)weakforms;(5)pause;(6)liaison,(7)stressandstressshift;(8)linking,elisionandcontraction;

(9)assimilationanddissimilation;

(10)rhythm;(11)intonation(rising,falling,fall-risetones;combinedintonationsandtoneunits;theintonationsofquestions-tags,vocatives,parentheses,reportingphrases,etc.)第四頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日

2.0Introduction

However,whatwehaveacquiredisjustthepracticalaspectofsoundstudyanditisveryusefulforustoimproveourspokenlanguage,esp.ouroralEnglish.Here,thestudyofsoundsoflanguagetriestohelpushaveadeeperunderstandingofhowtopronouncetheindividualsoundsandwhyitispronouncedinthiswayorthatway,sothatwehaveadeeperunderstandingofwhatlanguageisandhowitworks.第五頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日2.1SpeechproductionandperceptionLanguageisa“systemofvocalsymbols”.Speechsoundshadexistedlongbeforewritingwasinventedandthestudyofspeechsoundsisamajorpartoflinguistics.Wewillbeginwiththestudyofspeechsounds(phonetics),andthengoontothestudyofsoundpatterns(phonology)SpeechspeechProductiontransmissionperception(SpeakerA)soundwaves(speakerB)Fromtheabove,wecanimagineeasily,thespeechsoundisarticulatedbyAspeakerA,thentransmittedtoandreceivedbySpeakerB,consequently,aspeechsoundgoesthroughathree-stepprocessastheabovelanguagecommunicativeprocess.第六頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日

2.1Speechproductionandperception

Althoughmoststudentsdonotliketolearnphoneticsandphonologyforitsdifficultyandboredom,withsomephoneticknowledge,wecangiveamuchmoreprecisedescriptiontospeechsounds;withsomephonologicalknowledge,wecanbecomemoreawareofthefunctionsofsoundsindifferentlanguages.第七頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日2.2ClassificationofSoundStudies:第八頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日(1).

Phonetics,PhonemicsandPhonology

Phoneticsandphonemicsarebothconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguagethespeechsounds.Buttheydifferinthattheyapproachthesubjectfromtwodifferentpointsofview.Inphonetics,westudythemostconcrete,directlyobservableaspectoflanguagesounds,dealingwiththecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidingmethodsfortheirdescription,classification,andtranscription.Butthesoundsoflanguageareorganizedintoasystem.Thestudyofthissystemisknownasphonemics,inphonemics,wetalkabouthowphonemesfunctioninlanguage,andtherelationshipsamongthedifferentphonemics,inotherwords,westudytheabstractsideofthesoundsoflanguage.It’sarelatedbutadifferentsubject.Phonologyisthestudyofallaspectsofthesoundsandsoundsystemofalanguage.Itincludesphoneticsandphonemics.第九頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日(2)Phonologyandphonetics

Tobespecific,thestudyofspeechsoundsispartitionedbetweentwodistinctbutrelateddisciplines,phonologyandphonetics.Whilebotharerelatedtothestudyofsounds,theydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsaremade,transmittedandreceived.Itisconcernedwithallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonology,isthestudyofthesoundsystemsofaparticularlanguage.Itaimstodiscoverspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconverymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.第十頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日(2)Phonologyandphoneticse.g.leapandpeelphonetically,

both[l]sinthetwowordsarequitedistinct,oneistheclear[l](thepartofthetonguethatisraisedisveryclosetothefrontportionoftheroofofthemouth.)andtheotherthedark[l](thepartofthetonguethatisraisedtowardstheroofofthemouthismuchfurtherback.)Phonologically,thesetwosoundsarefundamentallythesame,sincetheyhaveoneandthesamefunctionincommunication,indistinguishingbetweenwordsandmeaningsdespitetheirdifferenceinpronunciation,suchasleaf,quilt,feel,etc.Thatis,phonologyisconcernedwiththestudyofthesoundsystemofaparticularlanguage,andsotheconclusionswereachaboutthephonologyofonelanguageshouldnotbegeneralizedintothestudyofanotherlanguage.Whatistrueinonelanguagemaynotbetrueinanotherlanguage.第十一頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日

2.3.Phonetics:

Thesciencewhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofhumansound-making,esp.speechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription

…Thestudyofthespeechsoundsthatoccurinallhumanlanguagesiscalledphonetics.※Speechsound:unitsinthelanguagesystemwhichexpressone’sthoughtsorfeelingsinasystematicway.第十二頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日

2.3.Phonetics:Thetaskofphoneticsistoidentifywhatarespeechsoundsinalanguage,andthentostudytheircharacteristics.knowingalanguageincludesknowingwhatsoundsareinthelanguageandhowtheymaybegatheredtoformmeaningfulunits.PhoneticpartwilldiscussthespeechsoundsoftheEnglishlanguage,howtheyareproduced,andhowtheymaybecharacterized.第十三頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日ThreebranchesofPhonetics1.ArticulatoryphoneticsfromthepointofviewofthespeakerHowaspeechsoundisproduced;whichvocalorgansareinvolved;howtheycoordinate.2.Auditoryphonetics

fromthepointofviewofthehearerTheimpressionaspeechsoundmakesonthehearerasmediatedbytheear,theauditorynerveandthebrain.3.Acousticphoneticsfromthepointofviewofthespeechsound

Thephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,astransmittedbetweenmouthandear.WewillconcentrateonlyonArticulatoryPhonetics,whichdealswithhowsoundsareproducedandignoretheotherareasofstudy.第十四頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日2.3.1Articulatorsandtheirfunctions:Tounderstandthenatureofalanguage,itisnecessarytounderstandthenatureofitsspeechsoundsandhowtheyareproduced.Allthesoundswemakeduringspeakingaretheresultofmusclescontracting,creatingtheflowofairbywayofthelung,chest,windpipe,vocalcords,vocaltract,pharynx,larynx,mouth,andnostrils.Inordertolearnhowspeechsoundsareproduced,itisnecessarytobecomefamiliarwiththedifferentpartsofthevocaltract.第十五頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日2.3.1Articulatorsandtheirfunctions:Thedifferentpartsarecalledorgansofspeechofarticulators,mainlyincludingpharynx,velumorsoftpalate,hardpalate,alveolarridgeoralveolum,tongue,teeth(upperandlower),lips,larynx,jawsandthenosesandthenasalcavity.第十六頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日

Speechorgans

Tounderstandthenatureofalanguage,itisnecessarytounderstandthenatureofitsspeechsoundsandhowtheyareproduced.Speechorgansarethosepartsofthehumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionofspeech.

Theprimaryfunctionistofulfillthebasicbiologicalneedsofbreathingandeating;besides,byconsiderablyevolutionaryjustificationtofulfillthespecialfunctionefficientlyfortheactofspeech.Thelung,thetrachea,thethroat,thenose,themouth

Insidethemouth:tongue(tip,blade,front,back,root,uvula小舌,maxilla上頜骨andmandible下頜)andvariouspartsofpalate(hard/softpalate,alveolarridge齒齦):Insidethethroat:pharynx咽,larynx喉,vocalcords(orvocalcords)聲帶第十七頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日

Thethreecavitiesofvocaltract:thepharynx(pharyngealcavity),mouth(oralcavity)andnose(nasalcavity)Pulmonicsounds(肺閉塞音):LungairstreamspeechsoundsbronchiolesandbronchitracheaTheupperpartsofthepharynxconnectstotheoralandnasalcavitiesThesoftpalatecanbelowertoallowairtopassthroughthenasalcavity.Whentheoralcavityisatthesametimeblocked,anasalsoundisproduced.Tongueisthemostflexiblepartofspeechorgans.Inphonetics,thetongueisdividedintofiveparts:thetip,theblade,thefront,thebackandtheroot.Ejectives,implosivesandclicksareproducedwithoutairstreamsfromthelungs.Suchsoundsarelabeled“Non-pulmonic”sounds.第十八頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日Howdohumanproducespeechsounds?ThevocalorgansInitiatoroftheair-streamLung/pharynxProducerofthevoiceVocalcordsResonatingcavitiesPharynxNasalcavityOralcavityFig.1第十九頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日Fig.2TheVocalOrgansAlveolarRidgeNasalCavityLipsTeethHardPlatateSoftPlatateUvulaTipBladeFrontTongueBackofTonguePharynxVocalCordsLarynx第二十頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日2.3.2voicedandvoicelesssounds

Whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theair-streamfromthelungsisnotobstructedatthespacebetweenvocalcordsandpassesfreely.Thesoundsproducedinthiswayaredescribedasvoicelesssounds,suchas/p,t,k,s/inwordsasseep[si:p],seat[si;t],andseek[si:k].Whenthevocalcordsaredrawntogether,theair-streamforcesitswaythroughandcausesthemtovibrate.Soundsproducedinthiswayaredescribedasvoicedsounds,suchas/b,d,g,z/inwordsascob[kob],cod[kod],cog[kog],anddaze[deiz].Thevoiced/voicelessdistinctionisaveryphoneticfeatureofEnglish.第二十一頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日2.3.3.Nasalandoralsounds

Whenthenasalpassageisblockedbyclosingthenosesothattheaircanonlyescapethroughthemouth,soundsproducedthiswayarecalledoralsounds,suahas/p,b/;Whenairescapesthroughthenoseaswellasthemouth,soundsproducedthiswayarecallednasalsounds,suchas/m,n,ng/inEnglish.Theseconsonantsareusuallyvoiced.Nasal/oralphoneticfeaturescanclassifyallspeechsoundsintofourclasses:voiced,voiceless,nasalandoral,Onesoundmustchoosetwoofthesefeaturesasthefollowingchartofspeechsoundclasses:OralsoundsNasalsoundsVoicedsoundsb,d,gm,n,ngVoicelesssoundsp,t,k第二十二頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日2.3.4.ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds;ThesoundsegmentsaregroupedintoConsonantsandvowels.Consonantsareproducedbyconstrictingorobstructingthevocaltractatsomeplacetodivert,impede,orcompletelyshutofftheflowofairintheoralcavity.Avowelisproducedwithoutsuchobstructionsonoturbulenceoratotalstoppingoftheaircanbeperceived.第二十三頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日

Consonants:

thesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltract.Consonants:Thecategoriesofconsonantareestablishedonthebasisofseveralfactors.Themostimportantofthesefactorsare:(a)Mannersofarticulation:theactualrelationshipbetweenthearticulatorsandthusthewayinwhichtheairpassesthroughcertainpartsofthevocaltract;(b)Placesofarticulation:whereinthevocaltractthereisapproximation,narrowing,ortheobstructionofair.SeeTable1:AchartoftheEnglishconsonant

第二十四頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日1.Placesofarticulation:thedifferentpartsofthevocalorgansinvolvedintheproductionofconsonants.

Bilabial,labio-dental,dental,alveolar,retroflex,palato-alveolar,palatal,velar,uvular,glottal…2.Mannersofarticulation:thedegreeofobstructions,complete,partial,oramerenarrowing.

Nasal,trill,tap/flap,lateral,fricative,approximant,affricate…3.Voicing:voicelessvs.voiced第二十五頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日1)Mannersofarticulation:

Thereareseveralbasicwaysinwhicharticulationcanbeaccomplished:thearticulatorsmaycloseofftheoraltractforaninstantorarelativelylongperiod;theymaynarrowthespaceconsiderably;ortheymaysimplymodifytheshapeofthetractbyapproachingeachother.1)Stop(orplosive):completeclosureofthearticulatorsinvolvedsothattheairstreamcannotescapethroughthemouth.Iftheairisstoppedintheoralcavitybutthesoftpalateisdownsothatitcangooutthroughthenasalcavity,thesoundproducedisanasalstop,otherwiseitisanoralstop.Althoughbothtypesofsoundsarestops,phoneticianshaveretainedthetermSTOPtoindicateanoralstopandusedthetermNASALtoindicateanasalstop.InEnglish,[bptdkg]arestopsand[mnng]arenasals.第二十六頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日2)Fricative:closeapproximationoftwoarticulatorssothattheair-streamispartiallyobstructedandturbulentairflowisproduced.[fvthzhszshjh]arefricativesinEnglish.3)(Median)approximant:anarticulationinwhichonearticulatorisclosetoanther,butwithoutthevocaltractbeingnarrowedtosuchanextentthataturbulentair-streamisproduced.[wjr]4)Lateral(approximant):obstructionoftheair-streamatapointalongthecenteroftheoraltract,withincompleteclosurebetweenoneorbothsidesofthetongueandtheroofofthemouth.[l]第二十七頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日5)ATrill(Roll)isproducedwhenanarticulatorissetvibratingbytheair-stream.[r]6)Ifonlyonevibrationisproduced,i.e.thetonguemakesasingletapagainstthealveolarridge,thesoundiscalledataporaflap.7)Affricatesinvolvemorethanoneofthesemannersofarticulationinthattheyconsistofastopfollowedimmediatelyafterwardsbyafricativeatsameplaceofarticulation.InEnglish,the“ch”ifchurchandthe“j”ofjetarebothaffricates.第二十八頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日2)Placesofarticulation

1)Bilabial:madewiththetwolips.[pbmw].2)Labi-o-dental:madewiththelowerlipandtheupperfrontteeth.[fv]3)Dental:madebythetonguetiporblade(dependingontheaccentorlanguage)andtheupperfrontteeth.[θ,zh]4)Alveolar;madewiththetonguetiporbladeandthealveolarridge.[tdnszrl]5)Postalveolar:madewiththetonguetipandthebackofthealveolarridge.[shj]第二十九頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日6)Retroflex:madewiththetonguetiporbladecurledback(retroflexed)sothattheundersideofthetonguetiporbladeformsastricturewiththebackofthealveolarridgeorthehardpalate.[r]7)Palatal:madewiththefrontofthetongueandthehardpalate.[j]8)Velar:madewiththebackofthetongueandthesoftpalate.Velarstop[kg],velarnasal[ng]9)Uvular:madewiththebackofthetongueandtheuvula,theshortprojectionofsofttissueandmuscleattheposteriorendofthevelum.10)Pharygeal:madewiththerootofthetongueandthewallsofthepharynx.11)Glottal:madewiththetwopiecesofvocalfoldspushedtowardseachother.[h]第三十頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日

3)Voicing

Inmanycasestherearetwosoundsthatsharethesameplaceandmannerofarticulation.Thesepairsofconsonantsaredistinguishedbyvoicing,theoneappearingontheleftisvoicelessandtheoneontherightisvoiced.第三十一頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日Table1.

AchartoftheEnglishconsonant第三十二頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日Exercises:Trytodecidethephoneticfeaturesofthefollowingconsonants:[p]:_________________[b]:________________[s]:_________________[z]:_________________[m]:________________[j]:__________________[h]:_________________[l]:__________________[th]:_________________[f]:__________________[ng]:_________________[d]:__________________[k]:___________________第三十三頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日Keystothefollowingconsonants’phoneticdescriptions:[p]voicelessbilabialstop;[b]voicedbilabialstop;[s]voicelessalveolarfricative;[z]voicedalveolarfricative;[m]voicedbilabialnasal;[j]palatalapproximant;[h]voicedglottalfricative;[l]voicedalveolarlateral;[th]voiceddentalfricative;[f]voicelesspostalveolar;[ng]voicedvelarnasal;[d]voicedalveolarstop;[k]voicelessvelarstop.第三十四頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日

Vowelsintheproductionofwhichnoarticulatorcomeveryclosetogetherandtheair-streampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstruction.

1.CardinalVowel:byDanielJones第三十五頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日TheCriteriaofvoweldescription

Vowelsarenormallydescribedwithreferencetofourcriteria:1)Thepartofthetonguethatisraisedfront,center,orback.2)Theextenttowhichthetonguerisesinthedirectionofthepalatehigh,midandlow3)Thekindofopeningmadeatthelipsvariousdegreesofliproundingorspreading.4)Thepositionofthesoftpalateraisedfororalvowels,andloweredforvowelswhichhavebeennasalized.第三十六頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日TheTheoryofCardinalVowels

TheideaofasystemofCardinalVowelswasfirstsuggestedbyA.J.Ellisin1844andwastakenupbyA.M.BellinhisVisibleSpeech(1867).TheCardinalvoweldiagram(orquadrilateral),isasetofstandardreferencepointsbasedonacombinationofarticulatoryandauditoryjudgments.Thesystemdefineseight“primary”cardinalvowels,inrelationtowhichafurthersetof“secondary”cardinalvowelscanbedefined.Allcardinalvowelsaremono-phthongsandtheirqualitydoesnotchangeduringtheirproduction.第三十七頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日

Vowelglides

Languagefrequentlymakeuseofadistinctionbetweenvowelswherethequalityremainsconstantthroughoutthearticulationandthosewherethereisanaudiblechangeofquality.Theformerareknownaspureormono-phthongvowelsandthelatter,vowelglides.Adoublemovementproducestri-phthongs.第三十八頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日Theclassificationofvowels

thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue→front,central,back

theheightofthetongueraising→high,mid,low

thedegreeofliprounding→rounded,unrounded

oralornasal→

longorshort→tenseorlax

pureorgliding→monophthongsordiphthongs第三十九頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日Thedescriptionofthesevowelsneedstofulfillfourbasicrequirements:1)Theheightoftongueraising(high,mid,low)theextenttowhichthetonguerisesinthedirectionofthepalate;Alsowecansay,accordingtohowwidethemouththemouthisopened(close,semi-close,semi-open,open)Closevowel:[i:][i][u][u:];Semi-closevowel:[e][?:];Semi-openvowel:[?][o:];Openvowel:[?][a][v][o][a:]2)Thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back)Frontvowels:[i:][i][e][?][a];Centralvowel:[?][?:][v]Backvowel:[a:][u][u:][o][o:]3)Thelengthortensenessofthevowel(tensevs.laxorlongvs.short)Long(tense):[i:][?:][a:][u:][o:]Short(lax):[i][e][?][a][?][v][u][o]4)Thelip-rounding(roundedvs.unrounded)Roundedvowel:allfront,centralandbackvowelsexcept[a:]Unroundedvowel:[a:]第四十頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日Exercise:Trytodescribethephoneticfeaturesofthefollowingvowels:[i:]________________________[u]________________________[er]_______________________[or]________________________[i]_________________________[u:]________________________[a]_________________________第四十一頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日Keystothevoweldescription:[i:]highfronttenseunroundedvowel[u]highbacklaxroundedvowel[er]centrallaxunroundedvowel[or]lowbacklaxroundedvowel[i]highfrontlaxunroundedvowel[u:]highbacktenseroundedvowel

[a]lowbacklaxroundedvowel第四十二頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日AmericanEnglishVowelsandBritishEnglishVowels

Table.2第四十三頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日2.3.5Elisionandassimilation

Undercertaincircumstances,somesoundsmaydisappear,suchassuppose[sp?uz],factory[f?ktri],mostly[m?usli],etc,Thelossofasoundorsoundsinspeechliketheseiscalledelision.Elisionistypicalofrapid,casualspeech.

第四十四頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日Questions:Whydowemakeuseofthefreevariationofthenegativeprefixes:im-,il-,ir-ratherthanin-inthefollowingwords:

impossible,impolite,immature,immobile

irrational,irreligious,irresistible,irrelevant

illogical,illegal[p]voicelessbilabialstop;[n]voicedalveolarnasal;[m]voicedbilabial

nasal;[l]voicedalveolarlateral;[r]voicedapproximantnasal;第四十五頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日Assimilation

Innaturalconnectedspeech,thatsoundsbelongstoonewordoronesyllablecancausechangesinsoundsbelongtoneighboringwordsorsyllables.Thisiscalledassimilation,suchasintolerant,impossible,illegal,illogical,illiterate,irregular,irrelevant,etc.Inotherwords,assimilationisaphonologicalprocessinwhichaspeechsoundchangesandbecomesmorelikeoridenticaltoanothersoundsthatprecedesorfollowsit.第四十六頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日Progressiveassimilation(順同化)

Assimilationinwhichaprecedingsoundbringsaboutachangeinafollowingoneiscalledprogressiveassimilation(順同化):e.g.cats[s]dogs[z],dropped

[t]praised

[d]第四十七頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日Regressiveassimilation(順同化)

Assimilationinwhichafollowingsoundbringsaboutachangeinafollowingoneiscalledregressiveassimilation(逆同化):e.g.inpossibleimpossibleinlegalillegal,

inregularirregular,

intolerantintolerant,第四十八頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日

Segments,divergencesandphonetictranscription

TheEnglishspellingdoesnotrepresentitspronunciation.Intheproductionofthewordabove,thefoursoundsegmentsthatarecomparabletothe“a”

“b”

“o”

“v”ofthespelling.Thereasonforthisdivergencebetweensoundandsymbolmayseemtobesimple:astherearemoresoundsinEnglishthanitsletters.第四十九頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日

PhoneticTranscription

Thevowel[a]inlambhassomequalityofthefollowingnasalandwecallthisphenomenonNASALIZATION.InordertotranscribethisphenomenoninIPAsymbols,theIPAchartcontainsasetofdiacriticsforthepurposeoftranscribingtheminutedifferencebetweenvariationsofthesamesound.Nasalizedvowel:acurvedlinetothetopofthesymbol[a]as[~a]Aspirated[p]inpeakandunaspirated[p]inspeak.Theaspiratedvoicelessbilabialstopisthusindicatedbythediacritich,as[ph],whereastheunaspiratedcounterpartistranscribedas[p=],etc.Whenweuseasimplesetofsymbolsinourtranscription,itiscalledabroadtranscription.Theuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetailsisreferredtoasanarrowtranscription.第五十頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日NarrowandbroadtranscriptionsBroadTranscriptions(BroadRomic):indicatethosesoundswhicharecapableofdistinguishingwords.phonemictranscriptionNarrowTranscriptions(NarrowRomic):symbolizeallthepossiblespeechsounds,includingtheminuteshades.allophonictranscription★//&[]Whenaphoneticsymbolisusedtostandforaphoneme,itisenclosedinobliquestroke//.Otherwise,placeitinsquarebracket[].eg.clear[l]/l/dark[l]第五十一頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日

IPA:Internationalphoneticalphabet

Theprincipleofestablishingaphoneticalphabetis:thereshouldbeaseparateletterforeachdistinctivesound,andthatthesamesymbolshouldbeusedforthatsoundinanylanguageinwhichitappears.ThefirstversionoftheIPAwaspublishedinAugust1888bytheDanishgrammarianOttoJespersonThepresentsystemoftheIPAderivedfromonedevelopedinthe1920sbytheBritishphonetician,DanielJohns.ThelatestversionoftheIPAwasrevisedin1993andcorrected(updated)in1996.第五十二頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日

PhoneticTranscription

1.InternationalPhoneticAlphabetⅰ.DevisedbytheInternationalPhoneticAssociationin1888.ⅱ.Acompromisedsystem,makinguseofsymbolsofallsources.a.romansmallletters:a,b,d,f…

b.capitalswiththesizecutdown:N,G,X,R…c.italicsuprighted:d.obsoleteletters:e.Greeklettersadapted:f.relativelynewsymbols:g.turningthelettersup-sidedown:h.writingtwoletterstogether:

ⅲ.Diacriticseg.voicelessvowelsandnasals:aspiratedplosives:nasalizedvowels:第五十三頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日Table3.ChartofDiacritics第五十四頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日第五十五頁，共六十八頁，2022年，8月28日

Parttwo:Speechsounds

1.Ifthetwosoundsareincomplementarydistribution,theyare_____ofthesamephoneme.A.symbolsB.allophoneC.phonesD.signs2.Whenaspeechsoundschangesandbecomesmorelikeanothersoundwhichfollowsorproceedsit,itissaidtobe_____.A.nasalizedB.assimilatedC.aspiratedD.voiced3.Aminimalpaircanbeillustratedby_____.A.sip/sheepB.bread/breastC.same/shameD.breath/breathe4.Iftwospeechsoundsareinconstructivedistribution,they_____.representtwophonemesB.areallophonesofthesamephoneticfeatureshaveexactlythesamephoneticfeaturesD.donotappearinthesameenvironment5.Minimalpaircanbeexemplifiedby__