胡壯麟語言學(xué)教程第四版筆記

.WORD.格式.Chapter1InvitationstoLinguistics1.3DesignfeaturesoflanguageThefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguagescanbecalleddesignfeatureswhichcandistinguishhumanlanguagefromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.ArbitrarinessArbitrarinessreferstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeanings.DualityDualityreferstothepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.CreativityCreativitymeansthatlanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness.Recursivenessreferstotherulewhichcanbeappliedrepeatedlywithoutanydefinitelimit.Therecursivenatureoflanguageprovidesatheoreticalbasisforthepossibilityofcreatingendlesssentences.DisplacementDisplacementmeansthathumanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofconversation.加1 Discreteness1可分離性)Eachsoundinthelanguageistreatedasdiscrete.加2Iconicity擬象，性:thedirect/non-arbitrary/non-symbolicrelationbetweenmeaningandform.Thereareresemblancesbetweenthelanguageformandwhattheyreferto.Thatrelationshipiscalledicon.Iconicityexistsinsounds,lexiconsandsyntax.Itisthemotivationbetweenlanguageformsandmeanings.Itisarelationofresemblancebetweenlanguageformandwhattheyreferto.1.5FunctionsoflanguageAsisproposedbyJacobson,languagehassixfunctions:Referential:toconveymessageandinformation;Poetic:toindulgeinlanguageforitsownsake;Emotive:toexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions;Conative:topersuadeandinfluenceothersthroughcommandsandentreaties;Phatic:toestablishcommunionwithothers;Metalingual:toclearupintentions,wordsandmeanings.Halliday1(1994)proposesatheoryofmetafunctionsoflanguage.Itmeansthat.專業(yè)資料.整理分享.languagehasthreemetafunctions:|ldeational|function:toconveynewinformation,tocommunicateacontentthatisunknowntothehearer;|Interpersonalfunction:embodyingalluseoflanguagetoexpresssocialandpersonalrelationships;Textualfunction:referringtothefactthatlanguagehasmechanismstomakeanystretchofspokenandwrittendiscourseintoacoherentandunifiedtextandmakealivingpassagedifferentfromarandomlistofsentences.AccordingtoHuZhuanglin,languagehasatleastsevenfunctions:InformativeTheinformativefunctionmeanslanguageistheinstrumentofthoughtandpeopleoftenuseittocommunicatenewinformation.InterpersonalfunctionTheinterpersonalfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguagetoestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.PerformativeTheperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersons,asinmarriageceremonies,thesentencingofcriminals,theblessingofchildren,thenamingofashipatalaunchingceremony,andthecursingofenemies.EmotivefunctionTheemotivefunctionisoneofthemostpowerfulusesoflanguagebecauseitissocrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.PhaticcommunionThephaticcommunionmeanspeoplealwaysusesomesmall,seeminglymeaninglessexpressionssuchasGoodmorning,Godblessyou,Niceday,etc.,tomaintainacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutanyfactualcontent.RecreationalfunctionTherecreationalfunctionmeanspeopleuselanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit,suchasababy’sbabblingorachanter’schanting.MetalingualfunctionThemetalingualfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguagetotalkaboutitself.E.g.Icanusetheword“book”totalkaboutabook,andIcanalsousetheexpression“thewordbook”totalkaboutthesign"b-o-o-k”itself.Whatislinguistics?Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanyonecommunity,butthelanguageofallhumanbeings.MainbranchesoflinguisticsPhoneticsPhoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds,itincludesthreemainareas:articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,andauditoryphonetics.PhonologyPhonologystudiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.MorphologyMorphologystudiestheminimalunitsofmeaning-morphemesandword-formationprocesses.SyntaxSyntaxreferstotherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.SemanticsSemanticsexamineshowmeaningisencodedinalanguage.PragmaticsPragmaticsisthestudyofmeaningincontext.MacrolinguisticsPsycholinguisticsSociolinguisticsAnthropologicallinguisticsComputationallinguistics|ImportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsDescriptivevs.prescriptiveTosaythatlinguisticsisadescriptivescienceistosaythatthelinguisttriestodiscoverandrecordtherulestowhichthemembersofalanguage-communityactuallyconformanddoesnotseektoimposeuponthemotherrules,ornorms,ofcorrectness.Prescriptivelinguisticsaimstolaydownrulesforthecorrectuseoflanguageandsettlethedisputesoverusageonceandforall.Forexample, “DontsayX.isaprescriptivecommand; “PeopledontsayX.isadescriptivestatement.Thedistinctionliesinprescribinghowthingsoughttobeanddescribinghowthingsare.Inthe18theentury,allthemainEuropeanlanguageswerestudiedprescriptively.However,modernlinguisticsismostlydescriptivebecausethenatureoflinguisticsasasciencedeterminesitspreoccupationwithdescriptioninsteadofprescription.Synchronicvs.diachronicAsynchronicstudytakesafixedinstant(usuallyatpresent)asitspointofobservation.Saussuresdiachronicdescriptionisthestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.E.g.astudyofthefeaturesoftheEnglishusedinShakespearestimewouldbesynchronic,andastudyofthechangesEnglishhasundergonesincethenwouldbeadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyseemstoenjoypriorityoverdiachronicstudy.Thereasonisthatunlessthevariousstateofalanguagearesuccessfullystudieditwouldbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplaceinitshistoricaldevelopment.Langue&paroleSaussuredistinguishedthelinguisticcompetenceofthespeakerandtheactualphenomenaordataoflinguisticsaslangueandparole.Langueisrelativestableandsystematic,paroleissubjecttopersonalandsituationalconstraints;langueisnotspokenbyanindividual,paroleisalwaysanaturallyoccurringevent.Whatalinguistshoulddo,accordingtoSaussure,istodrawrulesfromamassofconfusedfacts,i.e.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningallinstancesofparoleandmakethemthesubjectoflinguistics.CompetenceandperformanceAccordingtoChomsky,alanguageusersunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrulesiscalledthelinguisticcompetence,andtheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituationsiscalledperformance.Competenceenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandandindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.Aspeakerscompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.Soaspeakersperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchhissupposedcompetence.Chomskybelievesthatlinguistsoughttostudycompetence,ratherthanperformance.Chomskyscompetence-performancedistinctionisnotexactlythesameas,thoughsimilarto,Saussureslangue-paroledistinction.Langueisasocialproductandasetofconventionsofacommunity,whilecompetenceisdeemedasapropertyofmindofeachindividual.SaussurelooksatlanguagemorefromasociologicalorsociolinguisticpointofviewthanChomskysincethelatterdealswithhisissuespsychologicallyorpsycholinguistically.Eticvs.emicBeingeticmeansresearchersmakingfartoomany,aswellasbehaviorallyandinconsequential,differentiations,justasoftenthecasewithphoneticsvs.phonemicsanalysisinlinguisticsproper.Anemicsetofspeechactsandeventsmustbeonethatisvalidatedasmeaningfulviafinalresourcetothenativemembersofaspeechcommunityratherthanviaappealtotheinvestigatorsingenuityorintuitionalone.Chapter2SpeechSoundsSpeechproductionandperceptionPhoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds.Itincludesthreemainareas:Articul^torylphonetics-thestudyoftheproductionofspeechsoundsAcoustic|phonetics-thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeechAuditorylphonetics-thestudyofperceptionofspeechsoundsMostphoneticiansareinterestedinarticulatoryphonetics.2.3Segments,divergences,andphonetictranscription2.3.2PhonetictranscriptionInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA):thesystemofsymbolsforrepresentingthepronunciationofwordsinanylanguageaccordingtotheprinciplesoftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation.Thesymbolsconsistoflettersanddiacritics.SomelettersaretakenfromtheRomanalphabet,somearespecialsymbols.2.4ConsonantsMannersofarticulationStop/plosive:Fricative:(Median)approximant:Lateral(approximant):PlacesofarticulationBilabial:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetwolips.Labiodental:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththelowerlipandtheupperfrontteeth.Dental:Aspeechsoundwhichismadebythetonguetiporbladeandtheupperfrontteeth.Alveolar:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetonguetiporbladeandthealveolarridge.Postalveolar:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetonguetipandthebackofthealveolarridge.Retroflex:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetonguetiporbladecurledbacksothattheundersideofthetonguetiporbladeformsastricturewiththebackofthealveolarridgeorthehardpalate.Palatal:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththefrontofthetongueandthehardpalate.Velar:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththebackofthetongueandthesoftpalate.Uvular:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththebackofthetongueandtheuvula,theshortprojectionofthesofttissueandmuscleattheposteriorendofthevelum.Pharyngeal:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththerootofthetongueandthewallsofthepharynx.Glottal:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetwopiecesofvocalfoldspushedtowardseachother.TheconsonantsofEnglishReceivedPronunciation(RP):ThetypeofBritishStandardEnglishpronunciationwhichhasbeenregardedastheprestigevarietyandwhichshowsnoregionalvariation.Ithasoftenbeenpopularlyreferredtoas“BBCEnglish or“OxfordEnglishbecauseitiswidelyusedintheprivatesectoroftheeducationsystemandspokenbymostnewsreadersoftheBBCnetwork.AchartofEnglishconsonantsMannerofarticulationPlaceofarticulationBilabialLabio dentalDentalAlveolarPostalveolarPalatalVelarGlottalStopNasalFricativeApproximantLateralAffricate[p]voicelessbilabialstop[b]voicedbilabialstop[s]voicelessalveolarfricative[z]voicedalveolarfricative[m]bilabialnasal[n]alveolarnasal[l]alveolarlateral[j]palatalapproximant[h]glottalfricative[r]alveolarapproximantChapter3Lexicon3.1Whatisword?1.Whatisalexeme?Alexemeisthesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofalanguagethatcanbedistinguishedfromothersimilarunits.Itisanabstractunit.Itcanoccurinmanydifferentformsinactualspokenorwrittensentences,andisregardedasthesamelexemeevenwheninflected.E.g.theword“write”'isthelexemeof“write,writes,wrote,writingindwritten.”2.Whatisamorpheme?Amorphemeisthesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.E.g.theword“boxes'hastwomorphemes:“box”and“es,”neitherofwhichpermitsfurtherdivisionoranalysisshapesifwedon’twanttosacrificeitsmeaning.Whatisanallomorph?Anallomorphisthealternateshapesofthesamemorpheme.E.g.thevariantsoftheplurality“-s”makestheallomorphsthereofinthefollowingexamples:map-maps,mouse-mice,ox-oxen,tooth-teeth,etc.Whatisaword?Awordisthesmallestofthelinguisticunitsthatcanconstitute,byitself,acompleteutteranceinspeechorwriting.Threesensesof"word"AphysicallydefinableunitThecommonfactorunderlyingasetofformsAgrammaticalunitIdentificationofwordsStabilityRelativeuninterruptibilityAminimumfreeformClassificationofwordsVariableandinvariablewordsGrammaticalwordsandlexicalwordsClosed-classwordsandopen-classwordsWordclassTheformationofwordMorphemeandmorphologyMorphologystudiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.TypesofmorphemesFreemorphemeandboundmorphemeFreemorphemes:Thosewhichmayoccuralone,thatis,thosewhichmayconstitutewordsbythemselves,arefreemorphemes.Boundmorphemes:Thosewhichmustappearwithatleastanothermorphemearecalledboundmorphemes.Root,affixandstemArootisthebaseformofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzed.Anaffixisthecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.Astemisanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.3.InflectionalaffixandderivationalaffixInflectionisthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.Thedistinctionbetweeninflectionalaffixesandderivationalaffixesissometimesknownasadistinctionbetweeninflectionalmorphemesandderivationalmorphemes.Wecantellthedifferencebetweenthemwiththefollowingways:Inflectionalaffixesveryoftenaddaminuteordelicategrammaticalmeaningtothestem.E.g.toys,walks,Johns,etc.Therefore,theyservetoproducedifferentformsofasingleword.Incontrast,derivationalaffixesoftenchangethelexicalmeaning.E.g.cite,citation,etc.Inflectionalaffixesdontchangethewordclassofthewordtheyattachto,suchasflower,flowers,whereasderivationalaffixesmightormightnot,suchastherelationbetweensmallandsmallnessfortheformer,andthatbetweenbrotherandbrotherhoodforthelatter.Inflectionalaffixesareoftenconditionedbynonsemanticlinguisticfactorsoutsidethewordtheyattachtobutwithinthephraseorsentence.E.g.thechoiceolikesin“Theboylikestonavigateontheinternetisdeterminedbythesubjecttheboyinthesentence,whereasderivationalaffixesaremoreoftenbasedonsimplemeaningdistinctions.E.g.Thechoiceofcleverandclevernessdependsonwhetherwewanttotalkabouttheproperty“clever orwewanttotalkabout“thestateofbeingclever.InEnglish,inflectionalaffixesaremostlysuffixes,whicharealwayswordfinal.E.g.drums,walks,etc.Butderivationalaffixescanbeprefixesorsuffixes.E.g.depart,teacher,etc.InflectionandwordformationInflectionInflectionisthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.WordformationWordformationreferstotheprocessofwordvariationssignalinglexicalrelationships.Itcanbefurthersubclassifiedintothecompositionaltype(compound)andderivationaltype(derivation).CompoundCompoundsrefertothosewordsthatconsistofmorethanonelexicalmorpheme,orthewaytojointwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleform,suchasice-cream,sunrise,paperbag,railway,rest-room,simple-minded,wedding-ringetc.Theheadofanominaloranadjectivalendocentriccompoundisdeverbal,thatis,itisderivedfromaverb.Consequently,itisalsocalledaverbalcompoundorasyntheticcompound.Usually,thefirstmemberisaparticipantoftheprocessverb.E.g.Nouns:self-control,pain-killer,etc.Adjectives:virus-sensitive,machinewashable,etc.TheexocentriccompoundsareformedbyV+N,V+A,andV+P,whereastheexocentriccomefromV+NandV+A.E.g.Nouns:playboy,cutthroat,etc.Adjectives:breakneck,walk-in,etc.DerivationDerivationshowstherelationbetweenrootsandsuffixes.Incontrastwithinflections,derivationscanmakethewordclassoftheoriginalwordeitherchangedorunchanged.ThecounterpointofphonologyandmorphologyAllomorph:Anyofthedifferentformsofamorpheme.Morphophonology/morphophonemics:Morphophonologyisabranchoflinguisticsreferringtotheanalysisandclassificationofthephonologicalfactorsthataffecttheappearanceofmorphemes,andcorrespondingly,thegrammaticalfactorsthataffecttheappearanceofphonemes.Itisalsocalledmorphonologyormorphonemics.Assimilation:Assimilationreferstothechangeofasoundasaresultoftheinfluenceofanadjacentsound,whichismorespecificallycalled“contactor“contiguousassimilation.Dissimilation:Dissimilationreferstotheinfluenceexercisedbyonesoundsegmentuponthearticulationofanother,sothatthesoundsbecomelessalike,ordifferent.LexicalchangeLexicalchangeproperInventionSinceeconomicactivitiesarethemostimportantanddynamicinhumanlife,manynewlexicalitemscomedirectlyfromtheconsumeritems,theirproducersortheirbrandnames.BlendingBlendingisarelativelycomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtwowordsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstwordandthefinalpartofthesecondword,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetwowords.Abbreviation/clippingAnewwordiscreatedbycuttingthefinalpart,cuttingtheinitialpartorcuttingboththeinitialpartsoftheoriginalwords.AcronymAcronymismadeupfromthefirstlettersofthenameofanorganization,whichhasaheavilymodifiedheadword.Back-formationBack-formationreferstoanabnormaltypeofword-formationwhereashorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimagedaffixfromalongerformalreadyinthelanguage.AnalogicalcreationTheprincipleofanalogicalcreationcanaccountfortheco-existenceoftwoforms,regularandirregular,intheconjugationofsomeEnglishverbs.BorrowingEnglishinitsdevelopmenthasmanagedtowidenhervocabularybyborrowingwordsfromotherlanguages.Greek,Latin,French,Spanish,Arabicandotherlanguageshaveallplayedanactiveroleinthisprocess.PhonologicalchangeLossThelossofsoundcanfirstrefertothedisappearanceoftheverysoundasaphonemeinthephonologicalsystem.Thelossofsoundsmayalsooccurinutterancesattheexpenseofsomeunstressedwords.AdditionSoundsmaybelostbuttheymayalsobeaddedtotheoriginalsoundsequence.MetathesisMetathesisisaprocessinvolvinganalternationinthesequenceofsounds.Metathesishadbeenoriginallyaperformanceerror,whichwasoverlookedandacceptedbythespeechcommunity.AssimilationAssimilationreferstothechangeofasoundasaresultoftheinfluenceofanadjacentsound,whichismorespecificallycalled“contact or“contiguous assimilation.Morpho-syntacticalchangeMorphologicalchangeTheformofinflectionalaffixesmayalsochange.SyntacticalchangeTherearemoreinstancesofchangesinthesyntacticalfeaturesofwordsSemanticchangeBroadeningBroadeningisaprocesstoextendorelevatethemeaningfromitsspecificsensetoarelativelygeneralone.-10NarrowingContrarytobroadening,theoriginalmeaningofawordcanbenarrowedorrestrictedtoaspecificsense.MeaningshiftAllsemanticchangesinvolvemeaningshift.Heremeaningshiftisunderstoodinitsnarrowsense,i.e.thechangeofmeaninghasnothingtodowithgeneralizationorrestrictionasmentionedabove.ClassshiftByshiftingthewordclassonecanchangethemeaningofawordfromaconcreteentityornotiontoaprocessorattribution.Thisprocessofwordformationisalsoknownaszero-derivation,orconversion.FolketymologyFolketymologyreferstoachangeinformofawordorphrase,resultingfromanincorrectpopularnotionoftheoriginormeaningofthetermorfromtheinfluenceofmorefamiliartermsmistakenlytakentobeanalogous.OrthographicchangeChangescanalsobefoundatthegraphiticlevel.SincewritingisarecordingofthesoundsysteminEnglish,phonologicalchangeswillnodoubtsetoffgraphiticchanges.EndofChapter3-11SyntaxThetraditionalapproachNumber,genderandcaseTenseandaspect[Forthesetwosections,pleaseconsultmaterialsontraditionalEnglishgrammar.-icywarmtea]ConcordandgovernmentConcord(a.k.a.agreement)maybedefinedastherequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsinasyntacticrelationshipshouldagreewitheachotherintermsofsomecategories.E.g.inEnglishthedeterminerandthenounitprecedesshouldconcordinnumberasinthisman,thesemenAndtheformofasubjectshouldagreewiththatoftheverbintermsofnumberinthepresenttense,e.g.HespeaksEnglish;TheyspeakEnglish.Governmentisanothertypeofcontrolovertheformofsomewordsbyotherwordsincertainsyntacticconstruction.Itdiffersfromconcordinthatthisisarelationshipinwhichawordofacertainclassdeterminestheformofothersintermsofcertaincategory.E.g.inEnglish,thepronounafteraverboraprepositionshouldbeintheobjectformasiShegavehimabook;Shegaveabooktohim.Inotherwords,theverb,orthepreposition,governstheformofthepronounafterit.Theformeristhegovernor,andthelatteristhegoverned.ThestructuralapproachSyntagmaticandparadigmaticrelationsSyntagmatic(a.k.a.horizontal/chain)relationisarelationbetweenoneitemandothersinasequence,orbetweenelementswhichareallpresent,suchastherelationbetweenweatherandtheothersinthefollowingsentence:Iftheweatherisnice,wellgoout.Paradigmatic(a.k.a.vertical/choice)relationisarelationholdingbetweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotherataparticularplaceinastructure,orbetweenoneelementpresentandtheothersabsent.Immediateconstituentanalysis(ICanalysis)HowtodoitImmediateconstituentsareconstituentsimmediately,directly,below-12thelevelofaconstruction,whichmaybeasentenceorawordgrouporaword.Immediateconstituentanalysis,ICanalysisforshort,referstotheanalysisofasentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituents-wordgroups(phrases),whichareinturnanalyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown,andtheprocessgoesonuntiltheultimatesakeofconvenience.TheICanalysisofasentencemaybecarriedoutwithbracketsorshownwithatreediagram.E.g.PoorJohnranaway.—((Poor)(John))((ran)(away)).Poor John ran awayItsadvantagesThroughICanalysis,theinternalstructureofasentencemaybedemonstratedclearly,anyambiguities,ifany,willberevealedinthatICanalysisemphasizesnotonlythelinearstructureofthesentencebutalsothehierarchicalstructureofthesentence.E.g.thesentenceLeavethebookontheshelfisambiguous.Ithastwoneanings:(1)Putthebookontheshelf;(2)DonttouchthebookontheshelfThesetwomeaningscanbeshownbythefollowingtreediagrams.(Omitted.Seethetextbookp125?128.)ItsproblemsHowever,ICanalysishasthreedisadvantages.First,atthebeginning,someadvocatorinsistedonbinarydivisions.Anyconstruction,atanylevel,willbecutintotwoparts.Butthisisnotpossible.E.g.Oldmenandwomenisambiguousinthatitmaymeanold+menandwomenoroldmen+andwomen.Itsimpossibletocombinewithonlytheprecedingpartoronlythesucceedingpart.Second,constructionswithdiscontinuousconstituentswillposetechnicalproblemsfortreediagramsinICanalysis.E.g.thephrasalverbslikemakeup,turnon,orgiveupwillcauseproblemsinthatwhentheobjectisexpressedbyapronoun,itwillinterruptthephrasalverbasinmakeitup.ThemostseriousproblemisthattherearestructuralambiguitieswhichcannotberevealedbyICanalysis.E.g.thetreediagramandthelabelscanonlydooneanalysisfortheloveofGodEndocentricandexocentricconstructionsAnendocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionally-13equivalent,orapproachingequivalence,tooneofitsconstituents,whichservesasthecenter,orhead,ofthewhole.Itisalsocalledheadedconstruction.Typicalendocentricconstructionsarenounphrases,verbphrasesandadjectivephrases.Theymaybefurtherdividedintotwosubtypes:subordinateandcoordinateconstructions.Those,inwhichthereisonlyonehead,withtheheadbeingdominantandtheotherconstructionsdependent,aresubordinateconstructions.Inthecoordinateconstruction,therearemorethanonehead,e.g.boysandgirls,inwhichthetwocontentconstituents,boysandgirls,areofequalsyntacticstatus,andnooneisdependentontheother.Theexocentricconstructionisdefinednegativelyasaconstructionwhosedistributionisnotfunctionallyequivalenttoanyofitsconstituents.Thereisnonoticeablecenterorheadinit.Typicalexocentricconstructionsareprepositionalphrases,subordinateclauses,Englishbasicsentences,andtheverbplusobjectconstructions.ThegenerativeapproachDeepandsurfacestructuresIntransformationalgenerativegrammar(a.k.a.T-Ggrammar),thedeepstructuremaybedefinedastheabstractrepresentationofthesyntacticpropertiesofaconstruction,i.e.theunderlyinglevelofstructuralrelationsbetweenitsdifferentconstituents,suchastherelationbetweentheunderlyingsubjectanditsverb,oraverbanditsobject.Thesurfacesstructureisthefinalstageinthesyntacticderivationofaconstruction,whichcloselycorrespondstothestructuralorganizationofaconstructionpeopleactuallyproduceandreceive.TheexampleforthesurfacestructureisThenewspaperwasnotdeliveredtoday.Thedeepstructureoftheabovesentencewouldbesomethinglike:(negative)someone(pasttense)deliverthenewspapertoday(passive).Theitemsinbracketsarenotlexicalitemsbutgrammaticalconceptswhichshapethefinalformofthesentence.Ruleswhichdescribedeepstructureareinthefirstpartofthegrammar(basecomponent).Ruleswhichtransformthesestructuresintosurfacestructures(transformationalrules)areinthesecondpartofthegrammar(transformationalcomponent).ThestandardtheoryandafterWhatisthetracetheory?[Ithinkthisisdifficult.Itistoo