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1.語言的普遍特征:任意性arbitrariness雙層結(jié)構(gòu)duality既由聲音和意義結(jié)構(gòu)多產(chǎn)性productivity移位性displacement:我們能用語言可以表達(dá)許多不在場(chǎng)的東西文化傳播性culturaltransmission2。語言的功能:傳達(dá)信息功能informative人濟(jì)功能:interpersonal行事功能:Performative表情功能:Emotive寒暄功能:Phatic娛樂功能recreatinal元語言功能metalingual.語言學(xué)linguistics:包括六個(gè)分支語音學(xué)Phonetics音位學(xué)phonology形態(tài)學(xué)Morphology句法學(xué)syntax語義學(xué)semantics語用學(xué)pragmatics.現(xiàn)代結(jié)構(gòu)主義語言學(xué)創(chuàng)始人:Ferdinanddesaussure提出語言學(xué)中最重要的概念對(duì)之一:語言與言語languageandparole,語言之語言系統(tǒng)的整體,言語則只待某個(gè)個(gè)體在實(shí)際語言使用環(huán)境中說出的具體話語.語法創(chuàng)始人:NoamChomsky提出概念語言能力與語言運(yùn)用competenceandperformanceWhichofthefollowingstatementscanbeusedtodescribedisplacement.oneoftheuniquepropertiesoflanguage:wecaneasilyteachourchildrentolearnacertainlanguagewecanuseboth'shu'and'tree'todescribethesamething.wecanuselanguagetorefertosomethingnotpresentwecanproducesentencesthathaveneverbeenheardbefore..Whatisthemostimportantfunctionoflanguage?interpersonalphaticinformatived.metallingual.Thefunctionofthesentence"Aniceday,isn'tit?"is__ainformativephaticdirectiveperformative4.Thedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformanceisproposedby__asaussurehallidaychomskythepragueschool5.Whoputforwardthedistinctionbetweenlanguageandparole?saussurechomskyhallidaydanomymous第二節(jié)語音學(xué).發(fā)音器官由聲帶thevocalcords和三個(gè)回聲腔組成.輔音consonant:thereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltract..輔音的發(fā)音方式爆破音completeobstruction鼻音nasals破裂音plosives部分阻塞輔音partialobstruction擦音fricatives破擦音affricates等.輔音清濁特征voicing輔音的送氣特征aspiration.元音vowel分類標(biāo)準(zhǔn)舌翹位置,舌高和嘴唇的形狀6雙元音diphthongs,有元音過渡vowelglidesArticulatoryphoneticsmainlystudies__.thephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeechtheperceptionofsoundsthecombinationofsoundstheproductionofsoundsThedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesin__theplaceofarticulationb.theobstructionfairstreamthepositionofthetonguetheshapeofthelipsWhatisthecommonfactorofthethreesounds:p,ktvoicelessspreadc.voicedd.nasalWhatphoneticfeaturedistinguishthepinpleaseandthepinspeak?voicingaspirationc.roundnessd.nasalityWhichofthefollowingisnotadistinctivefeatureinEnglish?a.voicingb.nasalapproximationaspiration.Thephonologicalfeaturesoftheconsonantkare__voicedstopvoicelessstopvoicedfricativevoicelessfricative.pisdivverentfromkin__themannerofarticulationtheshapeofthelipsthevibrationofthevocalcordsd.thepalceofarticualtion.Vibrationofthevocalcordsresultsin__a.aspirationb.nasalityobstructionvoicing第三節(jié)音位學(xué)phonology.音位學(xué)與語音學(xué)的區(qū)別:語音學(xué)著重于語音的自然屬性,主要關(guān)注所有語言中人可能發(fā)出的所有聲音;音位學(xué)則強(qiáng)調(diào)語音的社會(huì)功能,其對(duì)象是某一種語言中可以用來組合成詞句的那些語音。.音位phoneme:最小語音單位.音位變體allophones:讀音差別.對(duì)比性分布:如果兩個(gè)音段出現(xiàn)在同一個(gè)語音環(huán)境中,而且產(chǎn)生了兩個(gè)不同的單詞,.互補(bǔ)性分布;如果兩個(gè)基本相似的音段絕不會(huì)出現(xiàn)在相同的語音環(huán)境中,那么它們之間就是互補(bǔ)性分布的關(guān)系,如送氣p絕不會(huì)出現(xiàn)在s之后,不送氣的p絕不會(huì)出現(xiàn)在詞首.音節(jié)syllable,分為節(jié)首o(hù)nset,節(jié)峰peak,節(jié)尾coda.輔音群:一般作為音節(jié)節(jié)首的輔音群不能超過三個(gè)福音,節(jié)尾不能超過4個(gè).最小語音對(duì)minimalpairsI.IntroductionWhatisLanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.WhatisLinguistics(語言學(xué))Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.meBasicDistinctions(區(qū)分)inLinguisticsSpeechandWritingOnegeneralprinciple(原則)oflinguisticanalysisistheprimacyofspeechoverwriting.Writinggiveslanguagenewscope(范疇)andusesthatspeechdoesnothave.Descriptive(描述性)orPrescriptive(說明性)Alinguisticstudyisdescriptiveifitdescribesandanalysesfactsobserved;itisprescriptiveifittriestolaydownrulesfor"correct"behavior.Synchronic(共時(shí))andDiachronic(歷時(shí))StudiesThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudyandThedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Langue(語言)andParole(言語)ThisisadistinctionmadebytheSwisslinguistF.DeSaussure(索緒爾)earlylastcentury.languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandparolereferstotheactualized(實(shí)際的)language,orrealizationoflangue.Competence(能力)andPerformance(行為)Competenceistheideallanguageuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances(發(fā)聲).4.TheScopeofLinguisticsGenerallinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageasawhole.Phonetics(語音學(xué))isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription.Phonology(音韻學(xué))isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthesoundpatternsoflanguages.Morphology(詞法)isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestheformofwords.Syntax(句法)isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestherulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentences.Semantics(語義學(xué))isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthemeaningoflanguage.Appliedlinguistics(應(yīng)用語言學(xué))isthestudyoftheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.Sociolinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.Psycholinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthemind.HistoricalLinguistics(歷史語言學(xué))isthestudyoflanguagechanges.Anthropologicallinguistics(人文語言學(xué))usesthetheoriesandmethodsofanthropologytostudylanguagevariationandlanguageuseinrelationtotheculturalpatternsandbeliefsofman.Neurolinguistics(神經(jīng)語言學(xué))studiestheneurologicalbasisoflanguagedevelopmentanduseinhumanbeings.Mathematicallinguistics(數(shù)學(xué)語言學(xué))studiesthemathematicalfeaturesoflanguage,oftenemployingmodelsandconceptsofmathematics.Computationallinguistics(計(jì)算語言學(xué))isanapproachtolinguisticsinwhichmathematicaltechniquesandconceptsareapplied,oftenwiththeaidofacomputer.II.Phonetics(語音學(xué))scopeofphoneticsSpeechsoundsmaybestudiedfromdifferentangles,thuswehaveatleastthreebranchesofphonetics:Articulatoryphonetics(發(fā)音語音學(xué))wemayexaminethewayinwhichaspeechsoundisproducedtodiscoverwhichvocalorgansareinvolvedandhowtheycoordinate調(diào))intheprocess.Auditoryphonetics(聽覺語音學(xué))wemaylookintotheimpressionaspeakermakesonthehearerasmediated(調(diào)節(jié))bytheear,theauditorynerve(神經(jīng))andthebrain.Acousticphonetics(聲學(xué)語音學(xué))westudythephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,astransmitted(傳送)betweenmouthandear.ThevocalorgansThevocalorgansmaybeviewedasconsistingofthreeparts,theinitiatoroftheair-stream,(氣流發(fā)生器官)theproducerofvoice(聲音發(fā)生器官)andtheresonatingcavities.(聲音共振器官)Consonants(輔音)Placesofarticulation(發(fā)音部位):bilabial,(雙唇)Labiodentals,(唇齒)dental,(齒)alveolar,(齒齦)retroflex,(卷舌)palate-alveolar,(上齒齦)palatal,(上顎)velar,(軟腭)uvular,(小舌)glottal(聲門)Mannersofarticulation:plosive,(暴破)nasal,(鼻音)trill,(顫音)lateral,(邊音)fricative,(摩擦)approximant,(近似音)affricate(破擦)Vowels(元音)Theclassificationofvowels:theheightoftongueraising(high,mid,low),thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back),andthedegreeofliprounding(rounded,unrounded)Phonology(音韻學(xué))phonemes(音素):adistinctive(有區(qū)別的)soundinalanguage.Allophones(音位變體):Thenondistinctivesoundsaremembersofthesamephoneme.Minimalpairs(最小對(duì)立體): wordformswhichdifferfromeachotheronlybyonesound.Freevariation(自由變異):Iftwosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironment(環(huán)境),theydoesnotproduceadifferentwordform,butmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesameword.Complementarydistribution(補(bǔ)充分類):Notallthespeechsoundsoccurinthesameenvironment.Whentwosoundsneveroccurinthesameenvironment.6.Suprasegmentalphonology(超音段音位):thestudyofphonologicalproperties(性質(zhì))ofunitslagerthanthesegment-phoneme.Theyaresyllable(音節(jié)),stress,(重音)wordstress,sentencestress.pitch(音調(diào))andintonation(語調(diào)).Morphology(詞法)inflection(構(gòu)形法):thegrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes.(屈折詞綴)Word-formation(構(gòu)詞):theprocesses(過程)ofwordvariationssignalinglexicalrelationships.(表明詞法關(guān)系)Theyarecompound(合成)andderivation(派生).Morpheme(詞素): thesmallestunitintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent.Allomorph(同質(zhì)異象變體):somemorphemeshaveconsiderablevariation,forinstance,alternateshapesorphoneticforms.Typesofmorphemes:Theyareroots,(詞根)affix(詞綴)andstem(詞干).Lexicon語言詞匯):initsmostgeneralsense,issynonymouswithvocabulary.Closed-classwords(封閉性)andopen-classwords(開放性):theformerwhosemembershipisfixedorlimitedandthelatterwhosemembershipisinprinciple(實(shí)際上)indefiniteorunlimited.Wordclass(詞性):Itdisplaysawiderrangeofmorepreciselydefinedclasses.Lexeme(詞位):thesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofalanguagethatcanbedistinguishedfromothersmallerunits.Idiom(習(xí)語,成語):Mostphrasallexemesareidioms.Itisespeciallytrueforasequenceofwords(詞序)whichissemantically(語義上)andoftensyntactically(句法上)restricted.(限制)Collocation(搭配):thehabitual(習(xí)慣的)co-occurrences(同時(shí)出現(xiàn))ofindividuallexicalitems.Syntax(句法)Positionalrelationorwordorder(詞序):thesequential(順序)arrangementofwordsinalanguage.Constructionorconstituent(句子結(jié)構(gòu)):theoverallprocessofinternal(內(nèi)部)organizationofagrammaticalunit.Syntacticfunction(句法功能):therelationshipbetweenalinguisticformandotherpartsofthelinguisticpatterninwhichitisused.Thenamesoffunctionsareexpressedintermsofsubjects,objects,predicates,modifiers,(修飾語)complements(補(bǔ)語),etc.Category(范疇):Itreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,e.g.noun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbphrase,etc.Thecategoriesofthenounincludenumber,gender,caseandcountability.Phrase:asingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalofclause.Clause:agroupofwordswithitsownsubjectandpredicate,ifitisincludedinalargersentence.Sentence:Itistheminimumpartoflanguagethatexpressesacompletethought.VI.SemanticsConceptualismormentalism(概念主義):FollowingF.DeSaussure(索學(xué)爾)'s"sign"theory,thelinguisticsignissaidtoconsistofasignifier(所指)andsignified(被指),i.e.,asoundimageandaconcept,likedbyapsychological(心理的)"associative"bond.(相關(guān)聯(lián)系)Mechanism(機(jī)械主義):Somelinguists,Bloomfield,(布魯費(fèi)爾德)forexample,turnedtosciencetocounter(反)-acttheprecioustheoriesandthisleadstowhatcallthemechanisticapproach(方法).Thenatureofthistheoryhasnothingtodowiththescientificstudyofmentalphenomena(.智力現(xiàn)象)Contextualism(語境主義):Itisbasedonthepresumption(假定)thatonecanderivemeaningfromorreduceittoobservablecontext.Behaviorism(行為主義):Behavioristsattempttodefine(定義)themeaningofalanguageformas"thesituation(情景)inwhichthespeakerutters(說話)itandtheresponse(反應(yīng))itcallsforthinthehearer."functionalism(功能主義):functionalistsasrepresented(代表)bythePragueschool(布拉格學(xué)派)linguistsandneo-Firthian(新弗斯)linguists,approachtheproblemfromanentirelyneworientation(方法).Theyargue(爭(zhēng)辯)thatmeaningcouldonlybeinterpreted(解釋)fromitsuseorfunctioninsociallife.Senserelationships:Whilereferencedealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelements,words,sentences,etc.,andthenon-linguisticworldofexperience,senserelatestothecomplexsystemofrelationshipsthatholdbetweenthelinguisticelementsthemselves.Theyincludesynonymy(同義詞),antonym(反義詞),hyponymy(下層次)Polysemy(一詞多義)andHomonymy(同音異義詞)Semanticanalysis:Itincludes1)componential(成分)analysiswhichdefinesthemeaningofalexicalelementintermsofsemanticcomponents.(意義成分)2)predication(表述)analysisinwhichthemeaningofasentenceisnotmerelythesumofthemeaningsofthewordswhichcomposeit.3)relationalcomponentsinwhichthesemanticanalysisofsomewordspresentsacomplicatedpicture,becausetheyshowrelationsbetweentwoandperhapsmoreterms.VII.Languagevariation(語言變化)Lexicalchange(詞匯的變化):changesinlexis.Invention:(新造詞)newentities.泠、、Compounding'合成詞)Newwordsaresometimesconstructedbycombiningtwooldwords.Blending:(混合詞):Itisarelativelycomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtworootsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstrootandthefinalpartofthesecondr

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