語言學基本定義

。語言languageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedbysocialgroupforcommunication.Arbitrariness:theformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.Productivity:languageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsreclusiveness.Wecanuseittocreatenewmeanings.Duality:thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.Displacement:humanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspare)atthemovementofcommunication.Culturaltransmission:languageisnotgeneticallyinherited.Passedfromgenerationtogeneration,itrequiressomelearning.Itistruehumanarebornwithlanguagecapacity,butaparticularlanguageapersonlearnstospeakisaculturalone,ratherthanageneticonelikethedogs’barkingsystem.Interchangeability:anyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandreceiverofmessages.Languagefunction:informative:languageistheinstrumentofthought,recordthefacts.Theuseoflanguagetorecordthefactsisaprerequisiteofsocialdevelopment.Interpersonal:byfarthemostimportantsociologicaluseoflanguage,andbywhichpeopleestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.Performative:theperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersons精選資料，歡迎下載。Emotive:tochangetheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.Phaticcommunion:weallusesuchsmall,seeminglymeaninglessexpressionstomaintainacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutinvolvinganyfactualcontents.Recreational:therecreationalfunctionofalanguageisoftenoverlookedbecauseitseemssorestrictiveinpurposeandsupposedlysolimitedinusefulness.Metalingual:ourlanguagecanbeusedtotalkaboutitself.Sociolinguistics—thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety.Psycholinguistics---thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofthemind.Appliedlinguistics---theapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning.Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics:規(guī)定性Prescriptive.描述性Descriptive/8.共時語言學Synchronicallinguistics7.歷時語言學Diachroniclinguistics/5.語言能力Competence6.語言運用performance/9.語言langue10.言語parole/speech,writing/traditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistics第二章音系學1Phonologyisthestudyofthesoundpatternsandsoundsystemsoflanguages.Itaimstodiscover theprinciples that governthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthevariationsthatoccur.2internationalphoneticalphabetAsetofstandardphoneticsymbolsintheformofachart,designedbytheinternationalphoneticassociationsince1888.Ithasbeenrevisedfromtimetotimetoincludenewdiscoveriesandchangesinphonetictheoryandpractice.精選資料，歡迎下載。3consonantsandvowelsConsonantareproducedbyaclosureinthevocaltract,orbyanarrowing,whichissomarkedthataircannotescapewithoutproducingaudiblefriction.Vowelisproducedwithoutsuchstricturesothatairescapesinarelativelyunimpededwaythroughthemouthornose.4cardinalvowelAreasetofvowelqualitiesarbitrarilydefined,fixedandunchanging,intended toprovide aframeofreference for thedescription oftheactualvowelsofexistinglanguage.5anticipatoryandperseverativeco-articulationwhensuchsimultaneous oroverlapping articulation areinvolved, wecalltheprocessco-articulation.Ifthesoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound,itisknownasanticipatoryco-articulation.Ifthesoundshowstheinfluenceoftheproceedingsound,itisperseverativeco-articulation.6PhonemeThesmallestofsoundwhichcandistinguishtwowords7AllophonesDifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.8MinimalpairAretwowordsinalanguagewhichdifferfromeachotherbyonlyonedistinctivesoundandwhichalsodifferinmeaning.9freevariationiftwosoundsoccurring inthesame environmentdonot contrast,thatisthesubstitutionofonefortheotherdoesnotproduceadifferentwordform,butmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesameword,thenthetwowordsareinfreevariation.精選資料，歡迎下載。Chapterthree詞匯學Thetotalnumberofwordsstoredinthebrainiscalledthelexicon.Wordsarethesmallestfreeunitsoflanguagethatunitesoundswithmeaning.Word:Aunitofexpressionthathasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynativespeakers,whetheritisexpressedinspokenorwrittenform.Lexeme:theabstractunitunderlyingthesmallestunitinthelexicalsystemofalanguage,whichappearsindifferentgrammaticalcontexts.Grammatical/Functionalwords:expressgrammaticalmeanings,suchasconjunctions,prepositions,articles,pronouns.Lexical/contentwords:havelexicalmeanings,thosewhichrefertosubstance,actionandquality,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs.Open-classwords:awordgroupwhosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited.Newmemberscanbeadded.Closed-classwords:awordgroupwhosemembershipisfixedorlimited,newmembersarenotregularlyadded.Morphology;thestudyofwordformation,theinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Morphemes:thesmallestunitlanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbefurtherdividedintosmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.Freemorphemes:thosethatmayconstitutewordsbythemselves.Boundmorphemes；thosethatcannotoccuraloneRoot:thebaseformofawordthatcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.Itisthatpartofaword-formthatremainswhenalltheinflectionalaffixesandderivationalaffixeshavebeenremoved.精選資料，歡迎下載。Affix:thetypesofformative/morphemethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.Base:anyformtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded;aformtowhicharuleofwordformationisapplied.Stem:thepartofthewordformwhichremainswhenallinflectionalaffixeshavebeenremoved.Inflection:indicatesgrammaticalrelationsbyaddinginflectionalaffixes.Derivation:combinationofanexistingwordandanaffixtoformanewword.Compounding/compositionisword-formationprocessconsistingofjoiningtwoormorebasestoformanewunit,acompoundword-AnIntroductiontoModernLinguistics.Endocentric:oneelementservesasthehead,ofsamesyntacticclassasthewholetherelationshipof‘akindof’.Exocentric:thereisnohead,noelementsisofthesamesyntacticclassasthewhole,sonotarelationshipof‘akindof‘something.Derivation:isalsocalled‘affixation’.Itisthemorphologicalprocesswherebygrammaticaloflexicalinformationisaddedtothebase.Conversion:isaword-formationprocessbywhichawordisalteredfromonepartofspeechtoantherwithouttheadditionordeletionofanymorpheme.Allomorph:somemorphemeshaveasingleforminallcontexts.Butamorphememayhaveconsiderablevariations,alternateshapesorphoneticformscalledtheallomorph.Blending:aprocessofword-informationinwhichanewwordisformedbycombiningthemeaningsandsoundsoftwowords,oneofwhichisnotinitsfullformorbothofwhicharenotintheirfullforms.精選資料，歡迎下載。Back-formation:ashorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimaginedaffixfromalongerformalreadyinthelanguage.Acronym:wordsformedfromtheinitiallettersofthenameofanorganizationorscientificterm,etc.itdiffersfrominitialismsinthattheyarepronouncedaswordsratherthanassequenceofletter.Initialism:atypeofshortening,usingthefirstletterofwordstoformapropername,atechnicalterm,orphrase;aninitialismispronouncedletterbyletter.Analogicalcreation:Itcanaccountforthecoexistenceoftwoforms,regularandirregular,ItheconjugationofsomeEnglishverbs.Loanwords:bothformandmeaningareborrowedwithonlyaslightadaptation.Loanblend:partoftheformisnativeandpartisborrowed,butthemeaningisfullyborrowed.Chapter4syntaxSyntax:thestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orsimplythestudyoftheformationofsentences.Category:thetermcategoryinsomeapproachesreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense.Morespecifically,itreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits.Phrase:isasingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalofclause.Wordgroupisanextensionofwordofaparticularclassbywayofmodificationwithitsmainfeaturesoftheclassunchanged.Clause:aconstituentwithitsownsubjectsandpredicatewhenitisincludedinalagersentence.Syntagmaticisarelationbetweenoneitemandothersinasequenceorbetweenelementswhichareallpresent.精選資料，歡迎下載。Paradigmaticrelationreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure.grammaticalconstruction;anysyntacticconstructwhichisassignedoneormoreconventionalfunctionsinalanguage,togetherwithwhateverislinguisticallyconventionalizedaboutitscontributiontothemeaningorusetheconstructcontains.constituentisatermusedinstructuralsentenceanalysisforeverylinguisticunit,whichisapartofalargerlinguisticunit.Severalconstituentstogetherformaconstruction.Anendocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttooneofitsconstituents,whichservesasthecenterorheadofthewhole.Exocentricconstructionreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable“Centre”or“Head”insidethegroup,usuallyincludingthebasicsentence,theprepositionalphrase,thepredicateconstruction,andtheconnectiveconstruction.Subordinateconstructionthoseinwhichthereisonlyonehead,withtheheadbeingdominantandtheotherconstituentsdependent,Coordinateconstruction:therearemorethanonehead,theheadcanstandfortheoriginalconstructionfunctionally.Deepstructure:theabstractrepresentationofthesyntacticpropertiesofaconstructionSurfacestructure:thefinalstageinsyntacticderivationofaconstruction.ChapterfiveSemanticsDenotationinvolvestherelationshipbetweenalinguisticunitandthenon-linguisticentitiestowhichitrefers.Thusitisequivalenttoreferentialmeaning.精選資料，歡迎下載。Connotation-oppositetodenotation,meansthepropertiesoftheentityaworddenotes.Sensebedefined asthesemanticsrelations betweenonewordandanother,ormoregenerallybetweentheonelinguisticunitandanother.Reference:isconcernedwiththerelationbetweenawordandthethingitrefersto,ormoregenerallybetweenalinguisticunitandnon-linguisticentityitrefersto.Syn