2021年考研英語一真題

2021年全國碩士研究生招生考試英語(一)試題

SectionIUseofEnglish

Directions:

Readthefollowingtext.Choosethebestword(s)foreachnumberedblankandmark[A],[B],[C]

or[D]ontheANSWERSHEET.(10points)

Fluidintelligenceisthetypeofintelligencethathastodowithshort-termmemoryandthe

abilitytothinkquickly,logically,andabstractlyinordertosolvenewproblems.It]inyoung

adulthood,levelsoutforaperiodoftime,andthen—2—startstoslowlydeclineasweage.But

3——agingisinevitable,scientistsarefindingthatcertainchangesinbrainfunctionmaynotbe.

Onestudyfoundthatmusclelossandthe-^-ofbodyfataroundtheabdomenareassociated

withadeclineinfluidintelligence.Thissuggeststhe5thatlifestylefactorsmighthelpprevent

or-6thistypeofdecline.

Theresearcherslookedatdatathat7measurementsofleanmuscleandabdominal

fatfrommorethan4,000middle-to-older-agedmenandwomenand8thatdatatoreported

changesinfluidintelligenceoverasix-yearperiod.Theyfoundthatmiddle-agedpeople

9_highermeasuresofabdominalfat10worseonmeasuresoffluidintelligenceasthe

years11.

Forwomen,theassociationmaybe12tochangesinimmunitythatresultedfrom

excessabdominalfat;inmen,theimmunesystemdidnotappeartobe13Itishopedthat

futurestudiescould14thesedifferencesandperhapsleadtodifferent15formen

andwomen.

16.therearestepsyoucan17tohelpreduceabdominalfatandmaintainlean

musclemassasyouageinordertoprotectbothyourphysicalandmental18Thetwo

highlyrecommendedlifestyleapproachesaremaintainingorincreasingyour19of

aerobicexerciseandfollowingaMediterranean-style20thatishighinfiberand

eliminateshighlyprocessedfoods.

1

1.[A]pauses[B]returns[CJpeaks[D]fades

2.[A]alternatively[B]formally[ClaccidentallyfD]generally

3.[A]while[B]since[Clonce[D]until

4.[A]detection[B]accumulation[C]consumption[D]separation

5.[A]possibility[B]decision[C]goal[D]requirement

6.[A]delay[B]ensure[C]seek[D]utilize

7.[A]modified[B]supported[C]included[D]predicted

8.[A]devoted[B]compared[C]converted[D]applied

9.[A]with[B]above[C]by[D]against

10.LA]lived[B]managed[CJscored[D]played

11.[A]ranout[B]setoff[C]drewin[D]wentby

12.[A]superior[B]attributable[C]parallel[D]resistant

13.[AJrestoredIBJisolated[CJinvolvedLD]controlled

14.[AJalterIBJspread[C]removeLD]explain

15.[A]compensations[B]symptoms[C]demands[D]treatments

16.[A]Likewise[B]Meanwhile[C]Therefore[D]Instead

17.[AJchange[B]watch[CJcount[D]take

18.[A]well-being[B]process[C]formation[D]coordination

19.[A]level[B]love[C]knowledge[D]space

20.[A]design[B]routine[C]diet[D]prescription

SectionIIReadingComprehension

PartA

Directions:

Readthefollowingfourtexts.Answerthequestionsaftereachtextbychoosing[A],[B],[C]or

[D].MarkyouranswersontheANSWERSHEET.(40points)

2

Text1

Howcanthetrainoperatorspossiblyjustifyyetanotherincreasetorailpassengerfares?It

hasbecomeagrimlyreliableannualritual:everyJanuarythecostoftravellingbytrainrises,

imposingasignificantextraburdenonthosewhohavenooptionbuttousetherailnetworktoget

toworkorotherwise.Thisyear'srise,anaverageof2.7percent,maybeafractionlowerthanlast

year's,butitisstillwellabovetheofficialConsumerPriceIndex(CPI)measureofinflation.

Successivegovernmentshavepermittedsuchincreasesonthegroundsthatthecostof

investinginandrunningtherailnetworkshouldbebornebythosewhouseit,ratherthanthe

generaltaxpayer.Why,theargumentgoes,shouldacar-drivingpensionerfromLincolnshirehave

tosubsidisethedailycommuteofastockbrokerfromSurrey?Equally,thereisasensethatthe

travailsofcommutersintheSouthEast,manyofwhomwillfaceamongthebiggestrises,have

receivedtoomuchattentioncomparedtothosewhomustenduretherelativelypoorinfrastructure

oftheMidlandsandtheNorth.

However,overthepast12months,thosecommutershavealsoexperiencedsomeofthe

worstrailstrikesinyears.Itisallverywelltrainoperatorstrumpetingtheimprovementstheyare

makingtothenetwork,butpassengersshouldbeabletoexpectabasiclevelofserviceforthe

substantialsumstheyarenowpayingtotravel.Theresponsibilityforthelatestwaveofstrikes

restsontheunions.However,thereisastrongcasethatthosewhohavebeenworstaffectedby

industrialactionshouldreceivecompensationforthedisruptiontheyhavesuffered.

TheGovernmenthaspledgedtochangethelawtointroduceaminimumservicerequirement

sothat,evenwhenstrikesoccur,servicescancontinuetooperate.Thisshouldformpartofa

widerpackageofmeasurestoaddressthelong-runningproblemsonBritain'srailways.Yes,more

investmentisneeded,butpassengerswillnotbewillingtopaymoreindefinitelyiftheymustalso

endurecramped,unreliableservices,punctuatedbyregularchaoswhentimetablesarechanged,or

plannedmaintenanceismanagedincompetently.Thethreatofnationalisationmayhavebeenseen

offfornow,butitwillreturnwithavengeanceifthejustifiedangerofpassengersisnotaddressed

inshortorder.

21.Theauthorholdsthatthisyear'sincreaseinrailpassengersfares.

[A]willeasetrainoperation'sburden

3

[B]haskeptpacewithinflation

[C]isabigsurprisetocommuters

[D]remainsanunreasonablemeasure

22.ThestockbrokerinPara.2isusedtostandfor.

[A]cardrivers

[B]railtraverllers

|C]localinvestors

[D]ordinarytaxpayers

23.ItisindicatedinPara.3thattrainoperators.

[A]areofferingcompensationstocommuters

[B]aretryingtorepairralationswiththeunions

[C]havefailedtoprovideanadequatesource

[D]havesufferedhugelossesowingtothestrikes

24.Ifunabletocalmdownpassengers,therailwaysmayhavetoface

[A]thelossofinvestment

[B]thecollapseofoperations

[C]areductionofrevenue

ID]achangeofownership

25.Whichofthefollowingwouldbethebesttitleforthetext?

[A]WhoAretoBlamefortheStrikes?

[B]ConstantComplainingDoesn'tWorlk

|C]CanNationalizationBringHope?

[D]Ever-risingFaresAren'tSustainable

4

Text2

LastyearmarkedthethirdyearinarowofwhenIndonesia'sbleakrateofdeforestationhas

slowedinpace.Onereasonfortheturnaroundmaybethecountry'santipovertyprogram.

In2007,Indonesiastartedphasinginaprogramthatgivesmoneytoitspoorestresidents

undercertainconditions,suchasrequiringpeopletokeepkidsinschoolorgetregularmedical

care.CalledconditionalcashtransfersorCCTs,thesesocialassistanceprogramsaredesignedto

reduceinequalityandbreakthecycleofpoverty.They'realreadyusedindozensofcountries

worldwide.InIndonesia,theprogramhasprovidedenoughfoodandmedicinetosubstantially

reduceseveregrowthproblemsamongchildren.

ButCCTprogramsdon'tgenerallyconsidereffectsontheenvironment.Infact,poverty

alleviationandenvironmentalprotectionareoftenviewedasconflictinggoals,saysPaulFerraro,

aneconomistatJohnsHopkinsUniversity.

Thafsbecauseeconomicgrowthcanbecorrelatedwithenvironmentaldegradation,while

protectingtheenvironmentissometimescorrelatedwithgreaterpoverty.However,those

correlationsdon'tprovecauseandeffect.Theonlypreviousstudyanalyzingcausality,basedon

anareainMexicothathadinstitutedCCTs,supportedthetraditionalview.There,aspeoplegot

moremoney,someofthemmayhavemoreclearedlandforcattletoraiseformeat,Ferrarosays.

Suchprogramsdonothavetonegativelyaffecttheenvironment,though.Ferrarowantedto

seeifIndonesia'spoverty-alleviationprogramwasaffectingdeforestation.Indonesiahasthethird-

largestareaoftropicalforestintheworldandoneofthehighestdeforestationrates.

Ferraroanalyzedsatellitedatashowingannualforestlossfrom2008to2012-including

duringIndonesia'sphase-inoftheantipovertyprogram-in7,468forestedvillagesacross15

provincesandmultipleislands.TheduoseparatedtheeffectsoftheCCTprogramonforestloss

fromotherfactors,likeweatherandmacroeconomicchanges,whichwerealsoaffectingforestloss.

Withthat,“weseethattheprogramisassociatedwitha30percentreductionindeforestation,v

Ferrarosays.

That'slikelybecausetheruralpoorareusingthemoneyasmakeshiftinsurancepolicies

againstinclementweather,Ferrarosays.Typically,ifrainsaredelayed,peoplemayclearlandto

plantmorericetosupplementtheirharvests.WiththeCCTs,individualsinsteadcanusethe

moneytosupplementtheirharvests.

5

Whetherthisresearchtranslateselsewhereisanybody'sguess.Ferrarosuggeststhe

importanceofgrowingriceandmarketaccess.Andregardlessoftransferability,thestudyshows

thatwhat'sgoodforpeoplemayalsobegoodforthevalueoftheavoideddeforestationjustfbr

carbondioxideemissionsaloneismorethantheprogramcosts.,,

26.Accordingtothefirsttwoparagraphs,CCTprogramsaimto.

[A]facilitatehealthcarereform

[B]helppoorfamiliesgetbetteroff

[C]improvelocaleducationsystems

[D]lowerdeforestationrates

27.ThestudybasedonanareainMexicoiscitedtoshowthat.

|A]cattlerearinghasbeenamajormeansoflivelihoodforthepoor

[B]CCTprogramshavehelpedpreservetraditionallifestyles

[C]antipovertyeffortsrequiretheparticipationoflocalfarmers

[D]economicgrowthtendstocauseenvironmentaldegradation

28.InhisstudyaboutIndonesia,Ferrarointendstofindout.

[AJitsacceptancelevelofCCTs

[B]itsannualrateofpovertyalleviation

[C]therelationofCCTstoitsforestloss

ID]theroleofitsforestsinclimatechange

29.AccordingtoFerraro,theCCTprograminIndonesiaismostvaluableinthat.

|A]itwillbenefitotherAsiancountries

[B]itwillreduceregionalinequality

[C]itcanprotecttheenvironment

[D]itcanboostgrainproduction

30.Whatisthetextcenteredon?

6

[A]Theeffectsofaprogram.

[B]Thedebatesoveraprogram.

[C]Theprocessofastudy.

[D]Thetransferabilityofastudy.

Text3

Asahistorian,who'salwayssearchingforthetextortheimagethatmakesusre-evaluatethe

past.I'vebecomepreoccupiedwithlookingforphotographsthatshowourVictorianancestors

smiling(whatbetterwaytoshattertheimageof19th-centuryprudery?).I'vefoundquiteafew,

and一sinceIstartedpostingthemonTwitter-theyhavebeencausingquiteastir.Peoplehave

beensurprisedtoseeevidencethatVictorianshadfunandcould,anddid,laugh.Theyarenoting

thattheVictorianssuddenlyseemtobecomemorehumanasthehundred-or-soyearsthatseparate

usfadeawaythroughourcommonexperienceoflaughter.

Ofcourse,Ineedtoconcedethatmycollectionof“SmilingVictorians^^makesuponlyatiny

percentageofthevastcatalogueofphotographicportraiturecreatedbetween1840and1900,the

majorityofwhichshowsittersposingmiserablyandstifflyinfrontofpaintedbackdrops,or

staringabsentlyintothemiddledistance.Howdoweexplainthistrend?

Duringthe1840sand1850s,intheearlydaysofphotography,exposuretimeswere

notoriouslylong:thedagueiTeotypephotographicmethod(producinganimageonasilvered

copperplate)couldtakeseveralminutestocomplete,resultinginblurredimagesassittersshifted

positionoradjustedtheirlimbs.Thethoughtofholdingafixedgrinasthecameraperformedits

magicaldutieswastoomuchtocontemplate,andsoanon-committalblankstarebecamethenorm.

7

Butexposuretimesweremuchquickerbythe1880s,andtheintroductionoftheBox

Brownieandotherportablecamerasmeantthat,thoughslowbytoday5sdigitalstandards,the

exposurewasalmostinstantaneous.Spontaneoussmileswererelativelyeasytocapturebythe

1890s,sowemustlookelsewhereforanexplanationofwhyVictoriansstillhesitatedtosmile.

Oneexplanationmightbethelossofdignitydisplayedthroughacheesygrin."Naturegave

uslipstoconcealourteethJranonepopularVictorianmaxim,alludingtothefactthatbeforethe

birthofproperdentistry,mouthswereofteninashockingstateofhygiene.Aflashingsetof

healthyandclean,regular“pearlywhites^^wasararesightinVictoriansociety,thepreserveofthe

super-rich(andeventhen,dentalhygienewasnotguaranteed).

Atoothygrin(especiallywhenthereweregapsorblackenedgnashers)lackedclass:drunks,

tramps,prostitutesandbuffbonishmusichallperformersmightgurnandgrinwithasmileaswide

asLewisCarrolPsgum-exposingCheshireCat,butitwasnotabecominglookforproperlybred

persons.EvenMarkTwain,amanwhoenjoyedaheartylaugh,saidthatwhenitcameto

photographicportraitstherecouldbe"nothingmoredamningthanasilly,foolishsmilefixed

fbrever^^.

31.AccordingtoParagraph1,theauthor'spostsonTwitter.

[A]illustratedthedevelopmentofVictorianphotography

[B|highlightedsocialmedia'sroleinVictorianstudies

[Clre-evaluatedtheVictorian'snotionofpublicimage

[D]changedpeople'simpressionoftheVictorians

8

32.WhatdoestheauthorsayabouttheVictorianportraitshehascollected?

[A]Theyarerareamongphotographsofthatage.

[B]Theyshoweffectsofdifferentexposuretimes.

[C]Theymirror19th-centurysocialconventions.

[DJTheyareinpopularuseamonghistorians.

33.WhatmighthavekepttheVictoriansfromsmilingforpicturesinthe1890s?

[A]Theirinherentsocialsensitiveness.

[B]Theirtensionbeforethecamera.

[C]Theirdistrustofnewinventions.

[DJTheirunhealthydentalcondition.

34.MarkTwainisquotedtoshowthatthedisapprovalofsmilesinpictureswas.

[A]adeep-rootbelief

[B]amisguidedattitude

[CJacontroversialview

[D]athought-provokingidea

35.Whichofthefollowingquestionsdoesthetextanswer?

[AJWhydidmostVictorianslooksterninphotographs?

[B]WhydidtheVictoriansstarttoviewphotographs?

[CJWhatmadephotographydevelopslowlyintheVictorianperiod?

9

[D]Howdidsmilinginphotographsbecomeapost-Victoriannorm?

Text4

Fromtheearlydaysofbroadband,advocatesforconsumersandweb-basedcompanies

worriedthatthecableandphonecompaniessellingbroadbandconnectionshadthepowerand

incentivetofavortheirownortheirpartners,websitesandservicesoverthoseoftheirrivals.

That'swhytherehasbeensuchastrongdemandforrulesthatwouldpreventbroadbandproviders

frompickingwinnersandlosersonline,preservingthefreedomandinnovationthathavebeenthe

lifebloodoftheinternet.

Yetthatdemandhasbeenalmostimpossibletofill-inpartbecauseofpushbackfrom

broadbandproviders,anti-regulatoryconservativesandthecourts.Afederalappealscourt

weighedinagainTuesday,butinsteadofprovidingabadlyneededresolution,itonlyprolonged

thefight.AtissuebeforetheU.S.CourtofAppealsfortheDistrictofColumbiaCircuitwasthe

latesttakeoftheFederalCommunicationsCommissiononnetneutrality,adoptedonaparty-line

votein2017.TheRepublican-pennedordernotonlyeliminatedthestrictnetneutralityrulesthe

FCChadadoptedwhenithadaDemocraticmajorityin2015,butrejectedthecommission's

authoritytorequirebroadbandproviderstodomuchofanything.Theorderalsodeclaredthat

stateandlocalgovernmentscouldn'tregulatebroadbandproviderseither.

Thecommissionarguedthatotheragencieswouldprotectagainstanti-competitivebehavior,

suchasabroadband-providingconglomeratelikeAT&Tfavoringitsownvideo-streamingservice

attheexpenseofNetflixandAppleTV.YettheFCCalsoendedtheinvestigationsofbroadband

providersthatimposeddatacapsontheirrivals'streamingservicesbutnottheirown.

OnTuesday,theappealscourtunanimouslyupheldthe2017orderderegulatingbroadband

providers,citingaSupremeCourtrulingfrom2005thatupheldasimilarlyderegulatorymove.

ButJudgePatriciaMillettrightlyarguedinaconcurringopinionthat"theresultisunhingedfrom

therealitiesofmodernbroadbandservice,"andsaidCongressortheSupremeCourtcould

interveneto''avoidtrappingInternetregulationintechnologicalanachronism."

10

Inthemeantime,thecourtthrewouttheFCC'sattempttoblockallstaterulesonnet

neutrality,whilepreservingthecommission'spowertopre-emptindividualstatelawsthat

undermineitsorder.ThatmeansmorebattlesliketheonenowgoingonbetweentheJustice

DepartmentandCalifornia,whichenactedatoughnetneutralitylawinthewakeoftheFCC's

abdication.

Theendlesslegalbattlesandback-and-forthattheFCCcryoutforCongresstoact.Itneeds

togivethecommissionexplicitauthorityonceandforalltobarbroadbandprovidersfrom

meddlinginthetrafficontheirnetworkandtocreateclearrulesprotectingopennessand

innovationonline.

36.Therehaslongbeenconcernthatbroadbandprovideswould.

[A]bringweb-basedfirmsundercontrol

[Blslowdownthetrafficontheirnetwork

[C]showpartialityintreatingclients

[D]intensifycompetitionwiththeirrivals

37.Facedwiththedemandfornetneutralityrules,theFCC.

[A]stickstoanout-of-dateorder

[B]takesananti-regulatorystance

[C]hasissuedaspecialresolution

[D]hasallowedthestatestointervene

38.WhatcanbelearnedaboutAT&TfromParagraph3?

[A]Itprotectsagainstunfaircompetition

[B]Itengagesinanti-competitivepractices.

[C]ItisundertheFCC'Sinvestigation.

[D]Itisinpursuitofqualityservice.

39.JudgePatriciaMillettarguesthattheappealscourt'sdecision.

[A]focusesontrivialities

11

[B]conveysanambiguousmessage

[C]isatoddswithitsearlierrulings

[D]isoutoftouchwithreality

40.Whatdoestheauthorargueinthelastparagraph?

[A]Congressneedstotakeactiontoensurenetneutrality.

[B]TheFCCshouldbeputunderstrictsupervision.

[C]Rulesneedtobesettodiversifyonlineservices.

|D|Broadbandproviders'rightsshouldbeprotected.

PartB

Directions：

Inthefollowingtext,somesentenceshavebeenremoved.Forquestions41-A5,choosethemost

suitableonefromthelistA-Gtofitintoeachofnumberedblanks.Therearetwoextrachoices,

whichdonotfitinanyoftheblanks.MarkyouranswersontheANSWERSHEET.(10points)

Inthemoviesandontelevision,artificialintelligence(AI)istypicallydepictedassomething

sinisterthatwillupendourwayoflife.WhenitcomestoAIinbusiness,weoftenhearaboutitin

relationtoautomationandtheimpendinglossofjobs,butinwhatwaysisAIchangingcompanies

andthelargereconomythatdon'tinvolvedoom-and-gloommassunemploymentpredictions?

ArecentsurveyofmanufacturingandserviceindustriesfromTataConsultancyServices

foundthatcompaniescunentlyuseAImoreoftenincomputer-to-computeractivitiesthanin

automatinghumanactivities.Onecommonapplication?Preventingelectronicsecuritybreaches,

which,ratherthaneliminatingITjobs,actuallymakesthosepersonnelmorevaluabletoemployers,

becausetheyhelpfirmspreventhackingattempts.

HereareafewotherwaysAIisaidingcompanieswithoutreplacingemployees:

BetterHiringPractices

Companiesareusingartificialintelligencetoremovesomeoftheunconsciousbiasfrom

hiringdecisions.<4Thereareexperimentsthatshowthat,naturally,theresultsofinterviewsare

12

muchmorebiasedthanwhatAIdoes,"saysDomingos.Inaddition,(41)One

companythat'sdoingthisiscalledBlendoor.Itusesanalyticstohelpidentifywheretheremaybe

biasinthehiringprocess.

MoreEffectiveMarketing

SomeAIsoftwarecananalyzeandoptimizemarketingemailsubjectlinestoincreaseopen

rates.OnecompanyintheUK,Phrasee,claimstheirsoftwarecanoutperformhumansbyupto10

percentwhenitcomestoemailopenrates.Thiscanmeanmillionsmoreinrevenue.(42)

Theseare“toolsthathelppeopleusedata,notareplacementforpeople,"says

PatrickH.Winston,aprofessorofartificialintelligenceandcomputerscienceatMIT.

SavingCustomersMoney

EnergycompaniescanuseAItohelpcustomersreducetheirelectricitybills,savingthem

moneywhilehelpingtheenvironment.Companiescanalsooptimizetheirownenergyuseandcut

downonthecostofelectricity.Insurancecompanies,meanwhile,canbasetheirpremiumsonAI

modelsthatmoreaccuratelyaccessrisk.(43)

ImprovedAccuracy

"Machinelearningoftenprovidesamorereliableformofstatistics,whichmakesdatamore

valuable,MsaysWinston.It"helpspeoplemakesmarterdecisions.^^(44)

ProtectingandMaintainingInfrastructure

Anumberofcompanies,particularlyinenergyandtransportation,useAIimageprocessing

technologytoinspectinfrastructureandpreventequipmentfailureorleaksbeforetheyhappen.4€If

theyfailfirstandthenyoufixthem,ifsveryexpensive,saysDomingos.

“(45)，

[A]Ireplacetheboringpartsofyourjob.Ifyou'redoingresearch,youcanhaveAIgooutand

lookforrelevantsourcesandinformationthatotherwiseyoujustwouldn'thavetimefor.

13

[B]Oneaccountingfirm,EY,usesanAIsystemthathelpsreviewcontractsduringanaudit.This

process,alongwithemployeesreviewingthecontracts,isfasterandmoreaccurate.

[C]TherearealsocompanieslikeAcquisio,whichanalyzesadvertisingperformanceacross

multiplechannelslikeAdwords,Bingandsocialmediaandmakesadjustmentsorsuggestions

aboutwhereadvertisingfundswillbemosteffective.

[D]Youwanttopredictifsomethingneedsattentionnowandpointtowhereit'susefulfor

[employees]togoto.

[E]''Before,theymightnotinsuretheoneswhofeltlikeahighriskorchargethemtoomuch,“

saysDomingos,“ortheywouldchargethemtoolittleandthenitwouldcost[thecompany]

money.”

[F]We'realsogivingourcustomersbetterchannelsversuspickingupthephone...toaccomplish

somethingbeyondhumanscale.

[G]AIlooksatresumesingreaternumbersthanhumanswouldbeableto,andselectsthemore

promisingcandidates.

PartC

Directions:

ReadthefallowingtextcarefullyandthentranslatetheunderlinedsegmentsintoChinese.Your

translationshouldbewrittenneatlyontheANSWERSHEET.(10points)

WorldWarIIwasthewatershedeventforhighereducationinmodernwesternsocieties.(46)

ThosesocietiescameoutofthewarwithlevelsofenroHmentthathadbeenroughlyconstantat

3-5%oftherelevantagegroupsduringthedecadesbeforethewar.Butafterthewar,greatsocial

andpoliticalchangesarisingoutofthesuccessfulwaragainstFascismcreatedagrowingdemand

inEuropeanandAmericaneconomiesforincreasingnumbersofgraduateswithmorethana

14

secondaryschooleducation.(47)AndthedemandthatroseinthosesocietiesforentryI。higher

educationextendedtogroupsandsocialclassesthathadnotihoughlofattendingtoauniversity

beforethewar.Thesedemandsresultedinaveryrapidexpansionofthesystemsofhigher

education,beginninginthe1960sanddevelopingveryrapidlythoughunevenlyinthe1970sand

1980s.

Thegrowthofhighereducationmanifestsitselfinatleastthreequitedifferentways,and

theseinturnhavegivenrisetodifferentsetsofproblems.Therewasfirsttherateofgrowth:(48)

inmanycountriesofWesternEuro