變形巖石應(yīng)變分析

第四章

變形巖石應(yīng)變分析基礎(chǔ)1本章主要內(nèi)容

變形、位移和應(yīng)變的概念旋轉(zhuǎn)應(yīng)變與非旋轉(zhuǎn)應(yīng)變遞進(jìn)變形、全量應(yīng)變與增量應(yīng)變巖石的變形階段2變形和位移

變形、位移和應(yīng)變的概念

當(dāng)?shù)貧ぶ袔r石體受到應(yīng)力作用后，其內(nèi)部各質(zhì)點(diǎn)經(jīng)受了一系列的位移，從而使巖石體的初始形狀、方位或位置發(fā)生了改變，這種改變就稱為變形。

變形3

位移物體內(nèi)部各質(zhì)點(diǎn)的位移是通過其初始位置和終止位置的變化來(lái)表示，質(zhì)點(diǎn)的初始位置和終止位置的連線叫位移矢量。

從幾何學(xué)角度來(lái)看，研究物體的變形需要比較物體內(nèi)各質(zhì)點(diǎn)的位置在變形前后的相對(duì)變化，為此，我們引入位移的概念。4平移旋轉(zhuǎn)(虛線為可能的路徑）形變體變P0P1P0P0P0P1P1P1巖石發(fā)生變形的四種形式5平移轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)形態(tài)變化或形變

體積變化或體變變形物體內(nèi)部各質(zhì)點(diǎn)相對(duì)位置無(wú)變化**變形概念的進(jìn)一步理解使物體內(nèi)部各質(zhì)點(diǎn)之間發(fā)生了相對(duì)位移6應(yīng)變：巖石變形的度量，即巖石形變和體變程度的定量表示;物體變形時(shí)內(nèi)部各質(zhì)點(diǎn)的相對(duì)位置發(fā)生變化;變化的兩種方式：線段長(zhǎng)度的變化，稱為線應(yīng)變;兩線間的角度變化，稱為剪應(yīng)變;一般通過線應(yīng)變和剪應(yīng)變定量說(shuō)明物體的變形程度

應(yīng)變7DeformationandStrain8Deformationdescribesthecollectivedisplacementsofpointsinabody;inotherwords,itdescribesthecompletetransformationfromtheinitialtothefinalgeometryofabody.Thischangecanincludeatranslation

(movementfromoneplacetotheother),arotation

(spinaroundanaxis),andadistortion

(changeinshape).Strain

describesthechangesofpointsinabodyrelativetoeachother;so,itdescribesthedistortionofabody.9DeformationandStrainSo,strainisacomponentofdeformationandthereforenotasynonym.Inessence,wehavedefineddeformationandstrainrelativetoaframeofreference.Deformationdescribesthecompletedisplacementfieldofpointsinabodyrelativetoanexternalreferenceframe,suchastheedgesofthepaperonwhichFigure4.2isdrawn.Strain,ontheotherhand,describesthedisplacementfieldofpointsrelativetoeachother.Thisrequiresareferenceframewithinthebody,aninternalreferenceframe,liketheedgesofthesquare.Whentherotationanddistortioncomponentsarezero,weonlyhaveatranslation.Thistranslationisformallycalledrigid-bodytranslation,becausethebodyundergoesnoshapechangewhileitmoves.Whenthetranslationanddistortioncomponentsarezero,wehaveonlyrotationofthebody.Byanalogytotranslation,wecallthiscomponentrigid-bodyrotation,orsimplyspin;Whentranslationandspinarebothzero,thebodyundergoesdistortion;thiscomponentisdescribedbystrain.Summary10Deformationisdescribedby:1.Rigid-bodytranslation(ortranslation)2.Rigid-bodyrotation(orspin)3.Strain4.Volumechange(ordilation)

應(yīng)變的度量——線應(yīng)變——角應(yīng)變——剪切應(yīng)變11伸長(zhǎng)度(Extension)：?jiǎn)挝婚L(zhǎng)度的改變量

e=(l

-l0)/l0

長(zhǎng)度比(Stretch)：變形后的長(zhǎng)度與原長(zhǎng)之比

S=l

/l0=1+e平方長(zhǎng)度比

λ=

（1+e）2倒數(shù)平方長(zhǎng)度比

λ′=1/λ桿件的簡(jiǎn)單拉伸變形線應(yīng)變是物體內(nèi)某方向單位長(zhǎng)度的改變量。設(shè)一原始長(zhǎng)度為l0的桿件變形后長(zhǎng)度為l，則其線應(yīng)變e為：一般把伸長(zhǎng)時(shí)的線應(yīng)變?nèi)≌?，縮短時(shí)的線應(yīng)變?nèi)∝?fù)值。

線應(yīng)變12物體變形時(shí)，任意兩條直線間的夾角一般會(huì)發(fā)生變化。初始相互垂直的線，變形后一般不再垂直，這種直角的改變量ψ[sai]

稱為角剪應(yīng)變。剪應(yīng)變：角剪應(yīng)變的正切

γ=tgψψγ

剪應(yīng)變13AngularShear:

MeasureofChangeinAnglesbetweenLines14Todeterminetheangularshearalongagivenline,L,inastrainedbody,itisessentialtoidentifyalinethatwasoriginallyperpendiculartoL.AngularsheardescribesthedepartureofthislinefromitsperpendicularrelationwithL(leftfigure).Thefulldescriptionrequiresasign(positiveequalscounterclockwise;negativeequalsclockwise)andamagnitudeexpressedindegrees.Signconventionsforangularshear.(A)DeterminationoftheangularshearoflineArequiresidentifyingaline,inthiscaseB,whichwasoriginallyperpendiculartoA.TheoriginalorientationoflineBrelativetolineAisshownbythedashline.AngularshearoflineAistheshiftinangleofBoriginalversusBfinal.Becausetheshiftisclockwise,theangularshearisnegative(-).(B)InthisexampletheangularshearoflineAis150.Acounterclockwiseshiftisdenotedbyapositive(+)sign.15Blockcontainingreferencecirclesandlines,beforedeformation.Shapeoftheblockafterdeformation.Originalreferencecirclesnowareellipses.Theoriginallymutuallyperpendicularreferencelineshaveallchangedlength,andmosthavechangedorientationaswell.Angularshearalonganylinecanbedeterminedbyfirstidentifyingalineoriginallyperpendiculartoit,andthenmeasuringtheangularshift.Remember,counterclockwiseshiftsarepositive(+);clockwiseshiftsarenegative(-).Forellipsecd(seeFigureB),theangularshearalongcis+30andtheangularshearalongdis-30(seeFigureC).Forellipseed,(seeFigureB),theangularshearalongeis+38,andtheangularshearalongfis-38(seeFigureC).Finally,forellipsegh(seeFigureB)theangularshearalonggis+20,andtheangularshearalonghis-20.ShearStrain16Letusconsiderhowpointsonalinemoveasaresponsetoangularshear.Points1to4onlineA0inFigure2.52Aaretranslatedbyvariousdistancesasaresultoftherotationofthelineonwhichtheyreside.LineA0isthelocusofpoints1to4.LineAfisthelocusofthesamepointsintheirdeformedlocations(Figure2.52B).Sinceangularshearwassystematicanddeformationwashomogeneous,lineAfremainsstraight.Points1to4moveadistancethatisdirectlyrelatedtotheangularshearandtothedistanceofeachpointabovethepointofintersectionwiththecomplementaryline.Ifthedistanceofeachpointabovetheintersectionisdenotedasy(Figure2.52B),thehorizontaldistanceoftranslationcanbefoundasfollows(Ramsay,1967):Thustanψisanotherwayofdescribingrelativeshiftsinorientationsoflinesthatwereoriginallyperpendicular.Itiscalledshearstrain,symbolizedbytheGreeklettergamma(γ),17Shearstrainalongaline(i.e.,alongagivendirection)maybepositiveornegative,dependingonthesenseofrotation(deflection)ofthelineoriginallyperpendiculartoit.Therangeofshearstrainiszerotoinfinity.FortheexampleshowninFigure2.52B,theshearstrainoflineBfis-tan30,or-0.58.TheshearstrainoflineAfis+tan30,or10.58.18均勻應(yīng)變和應(yīng)變橢球體

HOMOGENEOUSSTRAINANDTHESTRAIN

ELLIPSOID19Straindescribesthedistortionofabodyinresponsetoanappliedforce.Strainishomogeneouswhenanytwoportionsofthebodythatweresimilarinformandorientationbeforearesimilarinformandorientationafterstrain.Wedefinehomogeneousstrainbyitsgeometricconsequences:1.Originallystraightlinesremainstraight.2.Originallyparallellinesremainparallel.3.Circlesbecomeellipses;inthreedimensions,spheresbecomeellipsoids.Whenoneormoreofthesethreerestrictionsdoesnotapply,wecallthestrainheterogeneous(Figure4.3c).Becauseconditions(1)and(2)aremaintainedduringthedeformationcomponentsoftranslationandrotation,deformationishomogeneousbydefinitionifthestrainishomogeneous.strainellipseandstrainellipsoid20Inahomogeneouslystrained,two-dimensionalbodytherewillbeatleasttwomateriallinesthatdonotrotaterelativetoeachother,meaningthattheirangleremainsthesamebeforeandafterstrain.Whatisamaterialline?Amateriallineconnectsfeatures,suchasanarrayofgrains,thatarerecognizablethroughoutabody’sstrainhistory.ThebehavioroffourmateriallinesisillustratedinFigure4.4forthetwo-dimensionalcase,inwhichacirclechangesintoanellipse.Inhomogeneousstrain,twoorientationsofmateriallinesremainperpendicularbeforeandafterstrain.Thesetwomateriallinesformtheaxesofanellipsethatiscalledthestrainellipse.Analogously,inthreedimensionswehavethreemateriallinesthatremainperpendicularafterstrainandtheydefinetheaxesofanellipsoid,thestrainellipsoid.

Thelinesthatareperpendicularbeforeandafterstrainarecalledtheprincipalstrainaxes.應(yīng)變橢圓：二維變形中初始單位圓經(jīng)變形形成的橢圓應(yīng)變主軸：應(yīng)變橢圓的長(zhǎng)、短軸方向，該方向上只有線應(yīng)變而無(wú)剪切應(yīng)變。最大應(yīng)變與最小應(yīng)變：應(yīng)變主軸方向上的線應(yīng)變，即應(yīng)變橢圓長(zhǎng)、短軸半徑的長(zhǎng)度，其值分別為λ11/2和λ21/2應(yīng)變橢圓軸比：應(yīng)變橢圓的長(zhǎng)、短軸比Rs＝λ11/2/λ21/2應(yīng)變橢圓與應(yīng)變橢球21應(yīng)變橢球：三維變形中初始單位球體經(jīng)變形形成的橢球應(yīng)變主軸：應(yīng)變橢球的三主軸方向。分別稱為最大、中間和最小應(yīng)變主軸。記做λ1(X)

，λ2(Y)，λ3(Z)

長(zhǎng)度分別為X＝λ11/2，Y＝λ21/2，Z＝λ31/2應(yīng)變主平面：應(yīng)變橢球上包含任意兩個(gè)應(yīng)變主軸的切面。

XY，XZ，YZ面，λ1(X)λ2

(Y)λ3

(Z)22圓切面：應(yīng)變橢球上各個(gè)方向線應(yīng)變均相等的兩個(gè)圓形切面。它們相交于中間軸Y。平面應(yīng)變：應(yīng)變橢球中間軸（λ2，Y）不發(fā)生線應(yīng)變的應(yīng)變，其中間軸Y（λ21/2）＝1。無(wú)伸縮面（無(wú)線應(yīng)變面）：平面應(yīng)變橢球的圓切面23主軸、主平面的地質(zhì)意義：

X方向－反映在礦物的定向排列上（拉伸線理）

XY面－壓扁面：代表褶皺的軸面或劈理面的方位

YZ面—張性面：代表了張性構(gòu)造的方位（張節(jié)理）24應(yīng)變橢球體形態(tài)類型及其幾何表示法a=X/Y,b=Y/Z,

各種應(yīng)變橢球體的形態(tài)可以用不同的圖解來(lái)表示，常用的是弗林（Flinn）圖解，這是一種用主應(yīng)變比a及b作為坐標(biāo)軸的二維圖解。abK=0K=∞任意一種形態(tài)的橢球體都可在圖中表示為一點(diǎn)，如圖中的P點(diǎn)，該點(diǎn)的位置就反映了應(yīng)變橢球體的形態(tài)和應(yīng)變強(qiáng)度。橢球體的形態(tài)用參數(shù)k表示，k=tgα=(a-1)/(b-1)K值的物理意義：相當(dāng)于P點(diǎn)到原點(diǎn)連線的斜率。25k=0：軸對(duì)稱壓縮，鐵餅型；1>k>0：壓扁型；k=1：平面應(yīng)變∞>k>1：拉伸應(yīng)變；k=∞：?jiǎn)屋S拉伸，雪茄型三維應(yīng)變的弗林（Flinn）圖解

在形變時(shí)體積不變的條件下，依據(jù)k值可分為五種形態(tài)類型的應(yīng)變橢球體26PancakeshapedellipsoidleadstoStectonites(strongschistosity,nolineation),cigarshapedellipsoidleadstoLtectonites(stronglineation,noschistosity).L=Stectonitesareproducedbyplanestrain.Whenstrainishomogeneousittransformsanimaginarysphereintoanellipsoid(3perpendicularaxesλ1≥λ2≥λ3)calledtheFiniteStrainEllipsoidfromwhichitiseasytocharacterizethestyleofstrainanditsintensity.Whenstrainisheterogeneousweare"stuffed"asthecharacterizationofa"potatoid"isextremelydifficult.Fortunatelyitisalwayspossibletodefineascaleatwhichstrainis,infirstapproximation,homogeneous.Thestrain,asgeometricallycharacterizedbyanellipsoid,issoeasytoassessthatonlytwoparametersKandDcompletelydefinethestyleofstrain(shapeofellipsoid)andtheamountofstrain(ellipsoidicity,iehowfaritisfromaperfectsphere)respectively.Asshownontherightthesetwoparametersarebothfunctionoftheratioλ1/λ2andλ2/λ3.KandDdonotrequestknowledgeoftheradiusoftheinitialsphereonlyknowledgeoftheprincipalaxesofthefinitestrainellipsoid.三維應(yīng)變的弗林（Flinn）圖解參考注釋27有限應(yīng)變（總應(yīng)變）：物體變形最終狀態(tài)與初始狀態(tài)對(duì)比發(fā)生的變化；遞進(jìn)變形：物體從初始狀態(tài)變化到最終狀態(tài)的過程是一個(gè)由許多次微量應(yīng)變的逐次疊加過程，該過程即為遞進(jìn)變形；增量應(yīng)變：遞進(jìn)變形中某一瞬間正在發(fā)生的小應(yīng)變叫增量應(yīng)變；無(wú)限小應(yīng)變：如果所取的變形瞬間非常微小，其間發(fā)生的微量應(yīng)變?yōu)闊o(wú)限小應(yīng)變。

遞進(jìn)變形28COAXIALANDNON-COAXIAL

STRAINACCUMULATION29Inthegeneralcaseforstrain,theprincipalincrementalstrainaxesarenotnecessarilythesamethroughoutthestrainhistory.Theprincipalincrementalstrainaxesrotaterelativetothefinitestrainaxes,ascenariothatiscallednon-coaxialstrainaccumulation.Thecaseinwhichthesamemateriallinesremaintheprincipalstrainaxesateachincrementiscalledcoaxialstrainaccumulation.

So,withcoaxialstrainaccumulationthereisnorotationoftheincrementalstrainaxeswithrespecttothefinitestrainaxes.Thecaseinwhichthesamemateriallinesremaintheprincipalstrainaxesateachincrementiscalledcoaxialstrainaccumulation.Simpleshear，pureshearandgeneralshear30Thecomponentdescribingtherotationofmateriallineswithrespecttotheprincipalstrainaxesiscalledtheinternalvorticity,whichisameasureofthedegreeofnon-coaxiality.Ifthereiszerointernalvorticity,thestrainhistoryiscoaxial(asinFigure4.6b),whichissometimescalledpureshear.Thenon-coaxialstrainhistoryinFigure4.6adescribesthecaseinwhichthedistanceperpendiculartotheshearplane(orthethicknessofourstackofcards)remainsconstant;thisisalsoknownassimpleshear.Inreality,acombinationofsimpleshearandpureshearoccurs,whichwecallgeneralshear(orgeneralnon-coaxialstrainaccumulation;Figure4.7).kinematicvorticitynumber31Internalvorticityisquantifiedbythekinematicvorticitynumber,Wk,whichrelatestheangularvelocityandthestretchingrateofmateriallines.ForpureshearWk=0(Figure4.8a),forgeneralshear0<Wk<1(Figure4.8b),andforsimpleshearWk=1(Figure4.8c).Rigid-bodyrotationorspincanalsobedescribedbythekinematicvorticitynumber(inthiscase,Wk=∞;Figure4.8d),butrememberthatthisrotationalcomponentofdeformationisdistinctfromtheinternalvorticityofstrain.32UsingFigure4.6asanexample,thedeformationhistoryshowninFigure4.6arepresentsnon-coaxial,nonrotationaldeformation.Theorientationoftheshearplanedoesnotrotatebetweeneachstep,buttheincrementalstrainaxesdorotate.ThestrainhistoryinFigure4.6brepresentscoaxial,nonrotationaldeformation,becausetheincrementalaxesremainparallel.Typesofstrain33共軸遞進(jìn)變形（無(wú)旋轉(zhuǎn)變形）：在遞進(jìn)變形過程中，各增量應(yīng)變橢球體主軸始終與有限應(yīng)變橢球體主軸一致，即在變形過程中有限應(yīng)變主軸方向保持不變。非共軸遞進(jìn)變形（旋轉(zhuǎn)變形）：在遞進(jìn)變形過程中，增量應(yīng)變橢球體主軸與有限應(yīng)變橢球體主軸不一致，即在變形過程中有限應(yīng)變主軸方向發(fā)生變化。共軸與非共軸遞進(jìn)變形34有旋變形和無(wú)旋變形根據(jù)應(yīng)變主軸方向的物質(zhì)線在變形前后平行與否，可把變形分為有旋變形和無(wú)旋變形。簡(jiǎn)單剪切（單剪）純剪單剪與純剪應(yīng)變有旋變形的的

1和3質(zhì)點(diǎn)線方向?qū)?huì)改變。最典型的情況是簡(jiǎn)單剪切，體變?yōu)榱愕钠矫鎽?yīng)變；是由物質(zhì)中質(zhì)點(diǎn)沿著彼此平行的方向相對(duì)滑動(dòng)而成。無(wú)旋變形，

1和3質(zhì)點(diǎn)線方向在變形前后保持不變。如果體積不變而且2=0，則稱為純剪切。35共軸與非共軸遞進(jìn)變形中應(yīng)變主軸物質(zhì)（質(zhì)點(diǎn)）線的變化共軸變形中，組成應(yīng)變主軸的物質(zhì)（質(zhì)點(diǎn)）線不變非共軸變形中，組成應(yīng)變主軸的質(zhì)點(diǎn)線是不斷變化的36純剪切：一種均勻共軸變形，應(yīng)變橢球體中主軸質(zhì)點(diǎn)線在變形前后保持不變且具有同一方位。簡(jiǎn)單剪切：一種無(wú)體應(yīng)變的均勻非共軸變形，由物體質(zhì)點(diǎn)沿彼此平行的方向相對(duì)滑動(dòng)形成。純剪切與簡(jiǎn)單剪切37在簡(jiǎn)單剪切中，與剪切方向平行的方向上無(wú)線應(yīng)變，三維上剪切面上無(wú)應(yīng)變，所以Y軸為無(wú)應(yīng)變軸，故此簡(jiǎn)單剪切屬于平面應(yīng)變。另外剪切帶的厚度也保持不變。剪切面剪切方向剪切帶厚度38STRAINPATH39Themeasureofstrainthatcomparestheinitialandfinalconfigurationiscalledthefinitestrain,identifiedbysubscriptf,whichisindependentofthedetailsofthestepstowardthefinalconfiguration.Whentheseintermediatestrainstepsaredeterminedtheyarecalledincrementalstrains,identifiedbysubscripti.(1)持續(xù)拉伸區(qū)(2)先壓縮后拉伸，變形后長(zhǎng)度超過原長(zhǎng)(3)先壓縮后拉伸，變形后長(zhǎng)度未達(dá)到原長(zhǎng)(4)持續(xù)壓縮區(qū)應(yīng)變歷史及應(yīng)變橢圓分區(qū)40有限應(yīng)變：巖石變形程度的量度有限應(yīng)變（狀態(tài)）的表示：應(yīng)變橢球的主軸長(zhǎng)度比（Rs）和主軸方向應(yīng)變標(biāo)志體：變形巖石中可用于測(cè)量和計(jì)算應(yīng)變狀態(tài)的標(biāo)志性物體巖石有限應(yīng)變測(cè)量（課外閱讀材料）41礫石、砂粒、氣孔、鮞粒、放射蟲、還原斑等原始形狀規(guī)則的標(biāo)志物：變形化石和變形晶體等與變形有關(guān)的小型構(gòu)造標(biāo)志物：壓力影、生長(zhǎng)礦物纖維、石香腸構(gòu)造、線理、面理、節(jié)理等已知原始形狀的其它標(biāo)志物原始為圓球或橢球的標(biāo)志體應(yīng)變標(biāo)志體

確定巖石內(nèi)的有限應(yīng)變狀態(tài)及其分布規(guī)律的一個(gè)方法，就是測(cè)量和統(tǒng)計(jì)變形巖石內(nèi)已知原始形狀的標(biāo)志物在變形后的形態(tài)變化，然后加以對(duì)比分析。

根據(jù)變形標(biāo)志物中已知長(zhǎng)度或相對(duì)長(zhǎng)度比的線性標(biāo)志物發(fā)生的長(zhǎng)度變化，可以計(jì)算伸縮線應(yīng)變。

根據(jù)兩條直線之間原始角度的變化可以計(jì)算角剪應(yīng)變和剪應(yīng)變。應(yīng)變測(cè)量概述42原理：應(yīng)變標(biāo)志體變形前為球體或某一截面上的圓，變形后為橢球體或橢圓。如礫石、鮞粒和還原斑等為球體，而海百合莖的截面為圓，它們變形后的形態(tài)代表應(yīng)變狀態(tài)1.長(zhǎng)短軸法431.尋找三軸及主平面方向；2.在XZ、XY和YZ面上測(cè)量標(biāo)志體的長(zhǎng)、短軸；3.投圖；4.求斜率得X/Z、X/Y和Y/Z。5.還可用線性回歸及最小二乘法進(jìn)行計(jì)算機(jī)處理測(cè)量步驟：44原理：應(yīng)變標(biāo)志體變形前并非球體，而是隨機(jī)分布的具有原始軸比（Ri

）的橢球體，變形后形態(tài)和長(zhǎng)軸方位均發(fā)生變化。其最終的形態(tài)（軸比，Rf

）和方位（長(zhǎng)軸方向，φ）取決于測(cè)量標(biāo)志初始軸比（Ri）、初始長(zhǎng)軸方向（θ）、及應(yīng)變橢圓軸比（Rs），關(guān)系如下：θφRiRsRf測(cè)量標(biāo)志體：礫石、鮞粒、還原斑礦物顆粒等2.Rf/φ法4550％資料線：變形前長(zhǎng)軸與應(yīng)變主軸成±45°的不同軸比的橢球變形后所在的方向與軸比。RfφRfφ46472）在透明紙上畫上左上圖的Rf和φ軸并標(biāo)上刻度，同時(shí)標(biāo)上參考方向3）測(cè)量標(biāo)志體的長(zhǎng)短軸比（Rf）及其與參考方向的夾角（φ）4）將測(cè)量數(shù)據(jù)投到透明紙上5）將帶有測(cè)量數(shù)據(jù)的透明紙蒙在如左上圖那樣的曲線圖上，使透明紙和曲線圖中的φ軸重合，對(duì)不同Rs的曲線圖逐個(gè)套用，直到找到一個(gè)曲線圖，其上的50％資料線和主軸將所有數(shù)據(jù)點(diǎn)四等分。此時(shí)該曲線圖的Rs即為測(cè)量值6）透明紙上的參考軸與曲線圖主軸的夾角即為參考軸與實(shí)際應(yīng)變主軸的夾角測(cè)量方法：1）根據(jù)應(yīng)變標(biāo)志體長(zhǎng)軸的統(tǒng)計(jì)方位，在測(cè)量面上標(biāo)一參考的應(yīng)變主軸方向。48DePaor的Rf/φ網(wǎng)49要求：應(yīng)變標(biāo)志體變形后可辨認(rèn)變形前相互垂直的標(biāo)志線。3.摩爾圓法502αα2θθψ1ψ2ψ1ψ2514.心對(duì)心法－Fry法521.Means,W.D.,1976,StressandStrain,Spring–VerlagNewYork,Inc中文譯本：《應(yīng)力與應(yīng)變》，[美]W.D.米恩斯，淮南煤炭學(xué)院譯，煤炭工業(yè)出版社出版，1980.102.Thetechniquesofmodernstructuralgeology.v.1,strainanalysis/JohnG.R...中文譯本：《現(xiàn)代構(gòu)造地質(zhì)學(xué)方法.第一卷應(yīng)變分析》徐樹桐主譯1991年，參考書籍53ADDITIONALREADING154Elliott,D.,1972.Deformationpathsinstructuralgeology.GeologicalSocietyofAmericaBulletin,83,2621–2638.Erslev,E.A.,1988.Normalizedcenter-to-centerstrainanalysisofpackedaggregates.JournalofStructuralGeology,10,201–209.Fry,N.,1979.Randompointdistributionsandstrainmeasurementinrocks.Tectonophysics,