語(yǔ)言研究方法論考試答案

Definethefollowingtermsbriefly.Withexampleifyouneed.actionresearchActionresearchisamodeofinquiryundertakenbyteachersandismoreorientedtoinstructorandlearnerdevelopmentthanitistotheorybuilding,althoughitcanbeusedforthelatter.‘Actionresearch’isagenerictermforafamilyofrelatedmethodsthatsharesomeimportantcommonprinciples.Actionresearchisconductedbyorincooperationwithteachersforthepurposeofgainingabetterunderstandingoftheireducationalenvironmentandimprovingtheeffectivenessoftheirteaching.2.constructvalidityThisisperhapsthemostcomplexofthevaliditytypesdiscussedsofar.Inresearch,constructvalidityreferstothedegreetowhichtheresearchadequatelycapturestheconstructofinterest.Constructvaliditycanbeenhancedwhenmultipleestimatesofaconstructareused.3.criterion-referencedtest標(biāo)準(zhǔn)參照測(cè)驗(yàn)（Criterion-ReferencedTest）又稱準(zhǔn)則參照測(cè)驗(yàn)。一種精心編制的，在一定的行為領(lǐng)域上按照具體的行為標(biāo)準(zhǔn)水平對(duì)被試的測(cè)驗(yàn)結(jié)果作出直接解釋的測(cè)驗(yàn)。它為人們提供了有關(guān)被試是否達(dá)到某種行為標(biāo)準(zhǔn)水平或要求的信息，是一種與以經(jīng)典測(cè)驗(yàn)理論為基礎(chǔ)的常模參照測(cè)驗(yàn)相對(duì)的測(cè)驗(yàn)類型。Criterion-referencedtestisanelaboratetestandatestwhichmakesadirectexplanationofthetestresultsaccordingtospecificbehaviournormincertainbehaviourfield.Itprovidespeoplefortheinformationthatwhetherthetestmeetsacertainbehaviourlevelanddemandedinformation.Itisakindoftestbasedontheclassicaltesttheory.A

criterion-referencedtest

isonethatprovidesfortranslating

\o"Test(studentassessment)"test

scoresintoastatementaboutthe

\o"Behavior"behavior

tobeexpectedofapersonwiththatscoreortheirrelationshiptoaspecifiedsubjectmatter.Mosttestsandquizzesthatarewrittenbyschoolteacherscanbeconsideredcriterion-referencedtests.Theobjectiveissimplytoseewhetherthestudenthaslearnedthematerial.Criterion-referencedassessmentcanbecontrastedwith\o"Norm-referencedassessment"norm-referencedassessment

and

\o"Ipsativeassessment"ipsativeassessment.4.cross-sectionalstudyCross-sectionalstudyreferstoasnapshot-likeanalysisofthetargetphenomenonatoneparticularpointintime,focusingonasingletimeinterval.Itisthecounterpartofthelongitudinalresearch.Itcontainsofrepeatedcross-sectionalstudiesandsimultaneouscross-sectionalstudies.橫向研究又叫橫斷研究或橫向比較研究，就是在同一時(shí)間內(nèi)對(duì)每個(gè)對(duì)象進(jìn)行觀察與測(cè)定，在相互比較的基礎(chǔ)上對(duì)特定因素或各種因素間的關(guān)系進(jìn)行分析與考察的研究方案。Cross-sectionalresearchisaresearchmethodoftenusedindevelopmentalpsychology,butalsoutilizedinmanyotherareasincludingsocialscienceandeducation.Thistypeofstudyutilizes(利用)differentgroupsofpeoplewhodifferinthevariableofinterest,butshareothercharacteristicssuchassocioeconomicstatus,educationalbackground,andethnicity.5.datatriangulationThemostcommondefinitionoftriangulation,however,isthatitentailstheuseofmultiple,independentmethodsofobtainingdatainasingleinvestigationinordertoarriveatthesameresearchfindings.Differenttypesoftriangulationhavebeenidentified,includingtheoreticaltriangulation(usingmultipleperspectivestoanalyzethesamesetofdata),investigatortriangulation(usingmultipleobserversorinterviewers),andmethodologicaltriangulation(usingdifferentmeasuresorresearchmethodstoinvestigateaparticularphenomenon).(198頁(yè)secondlanguageresearch)6.internalvalidityInternalvalidityreferstotheextenttowhichtheresultsofastudyareafunctionofthefactorthattheresearcherintends.Inotherwords,towhatextentarethedifferencesthathavebeenfoundforthedependentvariabledirectlyrelatedtotheindependentvariable?7.longitudinalstudyA

longitudinalstudy(縱向研究)

isa

\o"Correlation"correlational

researchstudythatinvolvesrepeatedobservationsofthesamevariablesoverlongperiodsoftime—oftenmanydecades.Itisatypeof

\o"Observationalstudy"observationalstudy.Longitudinalstudiesareoftenusedinpsychologytostudydevelopmentaltrendsacrossthelifespan,andin\o"Sociology"sociology

tostudylifeeventsthroughoutlifetimesorgenerations.Longitudinalresearchisaratherimprecisetermthatreferstoafamilyofmethodsthatshareonethingincommon:informationisgatheredaboutthetargetoftheresearchduringaseriesofpointsintime.8.pilotstudyApilotstudyisgenerallyconsideredtobeasmall-scaletrialoftheproposedprocedures,materials,andmethods,andsometimesalsoincludescodingsheetsandanalyticchoices.Thepointofcarryingoutapilotstudyistotestoftentorevise—andthenfinalizethematerialsandthemethods.Pilottestingiscarriedouttouncoveranyproblems,andtoaddressthembeforethemainstudyiscarriedout.Apilotstudyisanimportantmeansofassessingthefeasibilityandusefulnessofthedatacollectionmethodsandmakinganynecessaryrevisionsbeforetheyareusedwiththeresearchparticipants.9.post-testPre-testprobability前測(cè)

and

post-testprobability

后測(cè)(alternativelyspelledpretestandposttestprobability)arethe

\o"Subjectivity"subjective

\o"Probabilities"probabilities

ofthepresenceofacondition(suchasa

\o"Disease"disease)beforeandaftera

\o"Diagnostictest"diagnostictest,respectively.

Post-testprobability,inturn,canbe

positive

or

negative,dependingonwhetherthetestfallsoutasa

\o"Positivetest"positivetest

ora

\o"Negativemedicaltest(pagedoesnotexist)"negativetest,respectively.Insomecases,itisusedfortheprobabilityofdevelopingtheconditionofinterestinthefuture.Inmanysecondlanguagestudies,participantsaregivenaposttesttomeasuretheeffectsoftreatment.atestgiventostudentsaftercompletionofaninstructionalprogramorsegmentandoftenusedinconjunctionwithapretesttomeasuretheirachievementandtheeffectivenessoftheprogram.10.randomsamplingThekeycomponentofprobabilitysamplingis‘randomsampling’.Thisinvolvesselectingmembersofthepopulationtobeincludedinthesampleonacompletelyrandombasis,abitlikedrawingnumbersfromahat(forexample,bynumberingeachmemberandthenaskingthecomputertogeneraterandomnumbrs).Randomsamplingreferstotheselectionofparticipantsfromthegeneralpopulationthatthesamplewillrepresent.Inmostsecondlanguagestudies,thepopulationisthegroupofalllanguagelearners,perhapsinaparticularcontext.Quiteclearly,secondlanguageresearchersdonothaveaccesstotheentirepopulation(e.g.,alllearnersofSpanishatU.S.universities),sotheyhavetoselectanaccessiblesamplethatisrepresentativeoftheentirepopulation.Therearetwocommontypesofrandomsampling:simplerandomsampling(e.g.,puttingallnamesinahatanddrawingfromthatpool)andstratifiedrandomsampling(e.g.,randomsamplingbasedoncategories).11.semi-structuredinterviewInappliedlinguisticsmostinterviewsconductedbelongtothe‘semi-structuredinterview’type,whichoffersacompromisebetweenthetwoextremes:Althoughthereisasetofpre-preparedguidingquestionsandprompts,theformatisopen-endedandtheintervieweeisencouragedtoelaborateontheissuesraisedinanexploratorymanner.Inotherwords,theinterviewerprovidesguidanceanddirection(hencethe‘-structured’partinthename),butisalsokeentofollowupinterestingdevelopmentsandtolettheintervieweeelaborateoncertainissues(hence‘-semi’part).Aninterviewinwhichresearchersusewrittenlistsofquestionsasaguide,butcandigressandprobeformoreinformation.12.think-aloudprotocolThink-aloudprotocol(orthink-aloudprotocols,orTAP;alsotalk-aloudprotocol)isamethodusedtogatherdatain\o"Usabilitytesting"usabilitytestinginproductdesignanddevelopment,in\o"Psychology"psychologyandarangeofsocialsciences(e.g.,reading,writing,translationresearch,decisionmaking,and\o"Processtracing"processtracing).Think-aloudprotocolsinvolveparticipantsthinkingaloudastheyareperformingasetofspecifiedtasks.Usersareaskedtosaywhatevertheyarelookingat,thinking,doing,andfeelingastheygoabouttheirtask.Thisenablesobserverstoseefirst-handtheprocessoftaskcompletion(ratherthanonlyitsfinalproduct).Observersatsuchatestareaskedtoobjectivelytakenotesofeverythingthatuserssay,withoutattemptingtointerprettheiractionsandwords.Testsessionsareoftenaudio-andvideo-recordedsothatdeveloperscangobackandrefertowhatparticipantsdidandhowtheyreacted.Thepurposeofthismethodistomakeexplicitwhatisimplicitlypresentinsubjectswhoareabletoperformaspecifictask.Inthink-aloudtasks,alsoknownasonlinetasks,individualsareaskedwhatisgoingthroughtheirmindsastheyaresolvingaproblemorcompletingatask.Throughthisprocedure,aresearchercangatherinformationaboutthewaypeopleapproachaproblem-solvingactivity.Oneofthemainproponentsofintrospectivemethodsinpsychology,Ericsson(2002),explainsthattheclosestconnectionbetweenthinkingprocessesandverbalreportsarefoundwhenparticipantsareinstructedtoverbalizetheirongoingthoughtswhilefocusingonatask.Thistechniquehascometobeknownas‘think-aloud’anditinvolvestheconcurrentvocalizationofone’s‘innerspeech’withoutofferinganyanalysisorexplanation.Whataretherespectiveadvantagesanddisadvantagesofquantitativeresearchmethodsandqualitativeresearchmethods?Pleaseexplainthemwithexamples.Researchmethods3439-42QuantitiveresearchmethodsAdvantages:thequantitiveinquiryissystematic,rigorous,focusedandtightlycontrolled,involvingprecisemeasurementandproducingreliableandreplicabledatathatisgeneralizabletoothercontexts.Fromapracticalperspective,evenwiththelongerpreparationperioddiscussedearlier,theresearchprocessisrelativelyquickandoffersauniversallyhighreputationwithalmostanyaudienceorstakeholdergroup.Disadvantages:quantitiveresearchmethodsaregenerallynotverysensitiveinuncoveringthereasonsforparticularobservationsorthedynamicunderlyingtheexaminedsituationorphenomenon.QualitativeresearchmethodsAdvantages:Qualitativeresearchmethodhastraditionallybeenseenasaneffectivewayofexploringnew,unstartedareas.Qualitativeresearchesareusefulformakingsenseofhighlycomplexsituationsandaimtobroadentherepertoireofpossibleinterpretationsofhumanexperience.Disadvantages:qualitativeresearchershavenorealmeansofassessingwhichoftheirfindingsareofmoregeneralimportanceandwhicharesimplyidiosyncratictoaparticularcase.Theprocessingofqualitativedata,canberathertime-consumingandlabor-intensive.Whataretherespectiveadvantagesanddisadvantagesofquestionnairesurveysandcasestudies?Pleaseexplainthemwithexamples.Researchmethods115155QuestionnairesurveysAdvantages:questionnairesurveysareeasytoconstruct,extremelyversatileanduniquelycapableofgatheringalargeamountofinformationquicklyinaformthatisreallyprocessible.Disadvantages:itiscommoninscientificinvestigationstocomeacrossquestionnairesthatfail,mostquestionnairesusedinappliedlinguisticresearcharesomewhatadhoc特別的instruments,andquestionnairethatyieldscoreswithsufficient,reliabilityandvalidityarenotthateasytocomebyinourfield.CasestudiesAdvantages：thecasestudyisanexcellentmethodforobtainingathickdescriptionofacomplexsocialissueembeddedwithinaculturalcontext,itoffersrichandin-depthinsightsthatnoothermethodcanyield,allowingresearcherstoexaminehowanintricatesetofcircumstancescometogetherandinteractinshapingthe