世界銀行-將人與項(xiàng)目聯(lián)系起來(lái)：衡量中東和北非婦女就業(yè)的新方法（英）

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PolicyResearchWorkingPaper10659

ConnectingPeopletoProjects

ANewApproachtoMeasuringWomen’sEmploymentintheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica

RaguiAssaad

CarolineKrafft

WORLDBANKGROUP

MiddleEastandNorthAfricaRegion

OfficeoftheChiefEconomist

January2024

PolicyResearchWorkingPaper10659

Abstract

Innovationstodateindetectingwomen’semploymenthavefocusedprimarilyonimprovingindividual-levelquestions.Thispaperexploresanalternativeapproach,usingdataonhouseholdenterprisesandaskingwhoparticipatesintheseactivities.ThisresearchusesthelatestwavesoftheLaborMarketPanelSurveysfortheArabRepublicofEgypt(2018)andTunisia(2014).Theresearchquestionsare(1)Howdomen’sandwomen’semploymentrateschangewhenaddingenterprise-baseddetectionquestionstostandardindividual-levelquestions?(2)Wastheadditionalmarket

employmentdetectedwithproject-basedapproachesclas-sifiedassubsistenceworkwithindividualmeasurementapproaches?(3)Forwhichwomenisadditionalemploy-mentdetectedusingproject-basedapproaches?Thepaperpresentsdescriptiveresultsonworkbasedonthedifferentapproaches.Italsoestimateschangesinstate(beingreclas-sifiedasworking)fromaddingenterprise-leveldata.Thefindingsshowlargeincreasesinemploymentratesforruralwomeninbothcountrieswhenincludingenterprise-baseddetectionquestions.

ThispaperisaproductoftheOfficeoftheChiefEconomist,MiddleEastandNorthAfricaRegion.ItispartofalargereffortbytheWorldBanktoprovideopenaccesstoitsresearchandmakeacontributiontodevelopmentpolicydiscussionsaroundtheworld.PolicyResearchWorkingPapersarealsopostedontheWebat

/prwp.The

authorsmaybecontactedatassaad@orcgkrafft@.

ThePolicyResearchWorkingPaperSeriesdisseminatesthefindingsofworkinprogresstoencouragetheexchangeofideasaboutdevelopmentissues.Anobjectiveoftheseriesistogetthefindingsoutquickly,evenifthepresentationsarelessthanfullypolished.Thepaperscarrythenamesoftheauthorsandshouldbecitedaccordingly.Thefindings,interpretations,andconclusionsexpressedinthispaperareentirelythoseoftheauthors.TheydonotnecessarilyrepresenttheviewsoftheInternationalBankforReconstructionandDevelopment/WorldBankanditsaffiliatedorganizations,orthoseoftheExecutiveDirectorsoftheWorldBankorthegovernmentstheyrepresent.

ProducedbytheResearchSupportTeam

ConnectingPeopletoProjects:ANewApproachtoMeasuringWomen’sEmploymentintheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica

RaguiAssaad1

andCarolineKrafft2

Keywords:Employment,gender,householdenterprises,Egypt,Tunisia

JELcodes:J21,J22,J43

Acknowledgments

ThisworkwassupportedbytheMENAChiefEconomistOfficeunderthelaborandgenderresearchprograms(TTLs:NellyElmallakhandNazmulChaudhury)..Weappreciatethe

commentsofparticipantsintheMNACEauthors’workshop,particularlyourdiscussantLayaneAlhorr.

1Correspondingauthor.HumphreySchoolofPublicAffairs,UniversityofMinnesota.Email:assaad@2DepartmentofEconomicsandPoliticalScience,St.CatherineUniversity.Email:cgkrafft@

2

1Introduction

Accuratelymeasuringwomen’semploymentiscriticaltounderstandingandaddressinggenderinequality,butthismeasurementischallenging,particularlyincontextswheregendernorms

undervaluewomen’sparticipationinmarketemployment.Especiallyinlow-andmiddle-incomecountries(LMICs),asubstantialshareofemploymentisinformal(LaPortaandShleifer2014)andthusinvisibleinadministrativedata,requiringemploymenttobeestimatedfromsurveys.

Althoughthe19thInternationalConferenceofLabourStatisticians(ICLS)in2013adoptedclearnewguidelinesforemploymentstatisticsandthedefinitionofemployment(ILO2013),

women’semploymentisoftenunderreportedinsurveys.Womenmayengageinavarietyof

formsofwork.Wherethedividinglinebetweenmarketemployment,subsistencework,and

domesticworkismorefluid,women’semploymentcanbemismeasuredifsurveysarenot

carefullydesigned(Anker1983;AnkerandAnker1989;DesiereandCosta2019;Discenzaetal.2021;Durazoetal.2021;FranckandOlsson2014;LangstenandSalem2008;MullerandSousa2020).

Pastinnovationshaveworkedtoimprovemeasurementofwomen’semploymentinindividual-levelsurveysbymovingbeyondsimplekeyworddetectionquestionstoanactivitieslistor

recoveryquestionstocapturemoreofthe“hidden”workdonebywomen(Anker1983;AnkerandAnker1989;Discenzaetal.2021;Durazoetal.2021;LangstenandSalem2008).Keywordquestionstypicallytrytodetectemploymentbyaskingabout“work”ora“job”or“main

activity.”Women,especiallyincontextswheregendernormsemphasizewomen’srolesas

homemakers,maynotconsidertheiremploymentajob,identifyingprimarilyashousewives,

evenifhelpinginafamilybusinessorfarm(FranckandOlsson2014;MullerandSousa2020).

Activitieslistsaskrespondentsiftheyengagedinspecific,oftenunder-detectedlocalactivities

(e.g.makingcheese,butter,orgheetosell)(AnkerandAnker1989;LangstenandSalem2008).PastresearchfromtheArabRepublicofEgypthasshownthesuperiorityoftheindividual

activitieslistincapturingwork,comparedtokeyworddetectionapproaches(Langstenand

Salem2008).Recoveryquestionstakeasimilarapproach,askingiftheindividualwasworkingonafamilyfarm,forexample,andwhethertheproductswereintendedformarket(Discenzaetal.2021;Durazoetal.2021).Theseinnovationscansubstantiallyincreaseestimatesofwomen’semployment,forinstancefinding22%moreemployedwomen(8.1percentagepointshigher

employmenttopopulationratio)inSriLanka(Discenzaetal.2021).Similarly,AnkerandAnker(1989)haveshownthatestimatesoffemaleparticipationinthemarketlaborforceinEgyptcanvaryfrom15%to34%dependingonwhatquestionsareaskedandwhetheritistherespondentherselfwhoanswersoraproxy.

Innovationstodateindetectingwomen’semploymenthavefocusedprimarilyonimproving

individual-levelquestionsandthetrainingofenumerators,forinstanceemphasizingtheneedtointerviewtheindividualherselfratherthanaproxyrespondent.Weexploreanalternative

approach,focusedoncollectingdataonfarmandnon-farmhouseholdenterprisesandasking

whoparticipatesintheseactivitiesandinwhatrole,andwhethertheseactivitiesarecarriedoutforthepurposeofmarketexchangeorforsubsistencepurposes.InEgypt,comparedtoan

activitieslistapproach,usingdataonmarketactivitiesatthehouseholdlevelandwho

participatedinthem,urbanwomen’semploymentrateincreasedfrom20to24percent,whileruralwomen’semploymentrateincreasedfrom16to40percent(Keo,Krafft,andFedi2022).

3

WeextendthisapproachinthispapertoTunisiaandpresentmuchmoredetailedanalysisfor

EgyptandTunisiaonwhosestatusischangedbyadoptingafocusonhouseholdenterprisesandwhoparticipatesinthem.Ourspecificresearchquestionsare(1)Howdomen’sandwomen’s

employmentrateschangewhenaddingenterprise-baseddetectionquestionstostandard

individual-levelquestions?(2)Wastheadditionalmarketemploymentdetectedwithproject-basedapproachesclassifiedassubsistenceworkwithindividualmeasurementapproaches?(3)Forwhichwomendowedetectadditionalemploymentusingproject-basedapproaches?

2PreviouseffortstoimprovethemeasurementoffemalelaborforceparticipationinEgypt

Asanillustrationofthechallengesandinnovationsinmeasuringwomen’seconomic

participation,thissectiondiscusseseffortstoimprovemeasurementinEgypt.Effortstoimprovethemeasurementoffemalelaborforceparticipation(FLFP)inEgyptdatebacktotheearly

1980sandeffortsattheCentralAgencyofPublicMobilizationandStatistics(CAPMAS)to

improvethetrainingofenumeratorsinvolvedinthedatacollectionfortheLaborForceSurvey(LFS).Theenumerators’manualusedin1983clearlyindicatedthatthedefinitionofthelaborforceincludesmanyunpaidactivitiesdoneforthefamily,mentioningspecificallyfamily

farming(AnkerandAnker1989).Otherchangessuchasincreasingthenumberoffemale

interviewersandreducingthenumberofhouseholdsperinterviewerperdaywerealso

introducedinthatyear(AnkerandAnker1989).Asshownin

Figure1,

thiseffortpaidoffwithabigincreaseinthemeasuredFLFPratefrom7%in1982to12%in1983,withtheruralratein

particulartriplingfrom4%to12%.

3

3GiventhewaythatCAPMASpresentsthedataintheLFSBulletinsfrom1977to2007,weuseasomewhat

unconventionaldefinitionoftheFLFPrate,whichweareabletoreproducethroughouttheperiod.Thenumeratoroftherateistheeconomicallyactivefemalepopulationaged12to64andthedenominatoristhemanpowerbasis,

whichisthepopulationage6to64,excludingthepermanentlydisabled,plustheemployedpopulation65andolder.Theindicatoriscalculatedinthesamewayfrom2008to2021usingtheLFSmicrodataandforthespecialroundoftheLFSinOctober1988andthevariouswavesoftheELMPS.

4

Figure1.FemalelaborforceparticipationratesinEgypt(percentages),ages12-64,1977-

2021

Percentage

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

19751980198519901995200020052010201520202025

Year

____LFS-urban____LFS-rural____LFS-Total

XELMPS-urban×ELMPS-rural×ELMPS-total

Sp.RoundofLFS-urbanSp.RoundofLFS-ruralSp.RoumndofLFS-total

Note:Thenumeratoroftheparticipationrateistheeconomicallyactivefemalepopulationaged12to64andthedenominatoristhemanpowerbasis,whichincludesallthepopulation6to64minusthosewhoarepermanentlydisabled,plusandthose65andolderwhoareemployed.Thedefinitionoftheeconomicallyactivepopulationfrom1977to1984islimitedtomarketwork

andthoseseekingsuchwork.ThedefinitioninthespecialroundoftheLFSinOctober1988

includessubsistencework.From1990to2005,thedefinitionisnotexplicitabouttheinclusionofsubsistencework.ThedefinitionusedintheLFSfrom2007to2021andthatusedinall

roundsoftheELMPSislimitedtomarketwork.TheLFSwasnotcarriedoutin1986,theyearofthepopulationcensus.In1987,thedesignoftheLFSwaschangedtobecollectedona

quarterlybasisratherthaninasingleannualround.However,noLFSbulletinisavailablefor1987orthefirsthalfof1988.

Source:Authors’calculationsusingdatafromCAPMASAnnualBulletinoftheLaborForceSurveyforLFSseriesfrom1977to2005(CAPMAS,n.d.),fromtheLFSpublicusemicrodata

(OAMDI2023)forLFSseriesfrom2007to2021,andfrompublicusemicrodataseries(OAMDI2019)forELMPS1998,2006,2012,and2018.

Around1987,theILOconductedMethodsTestSurveysinEgyptandIndiadesignedtotestthe

effectsofquestionnairedesign,sexofinterviewer,laborforcedefinition,andself/proxystatusonthereportingofwomen’slaborforceparticipation.TheEgyptMethodsTestsurveywascarried

5

outincooperationwithCAPMAS(AnkerandAnker1989).Thesurveyindicatedthatintheone-

weekreferenceperiod12%ofEgyptianwomenparticipatedinwageorsalaryemployment,37%participatedinmarketwork,andnearly80%participatedin“standard”work,whichisthe

equivalentoftheextendedworkdefinition(marketplussubsistencework).

InOctober1988,aspecialroundoftheLaborForceSurveywascarriedout(Fergany1990).Thespecialroundadoptedtheresolutionofthe13thICLSheldin1982,whichstatesthat“persons

engagedintheproductionofeconomicgoodsandservicesforownandhouseholdconsumptionshouldbeconsideredinself-employment”andthereforeasalaborforceparticipant(Anker

1983;ILO1982).However,therewasnowayofoperationalizingthe13thICLSconditionforthiskindofworktocountasemployment,whichstipulatesthatsuchworkshouldonlybe

includedinemployment“ifsuchproductioncomprisesanimportantcontributiontothetotalconsumptionofthehousehold.”Inpractice,allproductionandprocessingofprimary

commoditiesforpurposesofownhouseholdconsumptionendedupbeingincluded.

4

Furthermore,noseparatemeasuresformarketandsubsistenceworkwerereported.Asshownin

Figure1,

thisextendeddefinitionofemploymentresultedinalargeincreaseinthemeasured

femalelaborforceparticipationrateto31%,withtheruralratereachingover41%.This

definitionwasmaintainedintheoryinsubsequentroundsoftheLFS,butitsapplication

graduallywanedaslessemphasiswasplacedontheinclusionofsubsistencework.Asaresult,themeasuredFLFPrateintheLFSdeclinedto22%in1990and17%in1992,stabilizingatthatlevelforacoupleofyearsandthendecliningfurtherto15%in1997.ThemeasuredFLFPrateremainedroughlyatthatlevelthrough2003,withtheurbanrateexceedingtheruralratein2001and2002forthefirsttimesincetheearly1980s.

Inthemeantime,thefirstwaveoftheEgyptLaborMarketPanelSurvey(ELMPS)was

conductedin1998asacollaborationbetweentheEconomicResearchForumandCAPMAS

(AssaadandBarsoum2000).Thatquestionnairemadeacleardistinctionbetweenmarketand

subsistenceworkandincludedaseriesofeightquestionsaboutspecificactivitiestodetect

employmentinashortreferenceperiodofsevendaysandlongreferenceperiodofthreemonthsforthosewhoansweredthattheywerenotworkingintheseven-dayreferenceperiod.Asshownin

Figure1,

thisresultedinasomewhathighermeasuredFLFPrateoverall(16%),andamuchhigherruralrateof20%evenwhenexplicitlylimitingthedefinitionofemploymenttomarket

work.Asimilarapproachwasfollowedinthe2006waveoftheELMPS(Assaad2009),butthenumberofdetectionquestionswasincreasedto13.Thisresultedinanevenhigheroverallrateof22%andaruralrateof23%.

BasedontheexperiencegainedfromtheELMPSsurveys,CAPMASmadefurthereffortsto

improvethemeasurementoftheFLFPrate.AlthoughthequestionnaireusedintheLFSdidnotexplicitlychangetoincludetheinnovationsintroducedbytheELMPSuntilthefirstquarterof

2007,thereweresubstantialincreasesinthemeasuredFLFPratesintheLFSasearlyas2004asseenin

Figure1.

Since2007,theLFSquestionnaireexplicitlydistinguishesbetweenmarket

workandsubsistencework,thedistinctionsubsequentlyadoptedbythe19thICLS,andincludesaseriesof12keyworddetectionquestionsforthosereportingnotworkinginthe7-dayreferenceperiod.

4The19thICLSheldin2013furtherlimitedthedefinitionof“employment”toworkforpayorprofit(ormarketwork)anddefinedotherformsofwork,whichinclude“own-useproductionwork”(ILO2013).

6

Theeffectofthesemodificationsisreadilyapparentintheresultsfor2007,butastheemphasisonmeasuringfemalelaborforceparticipationwaned,themeasuredratedeclinedin2008,

specificallyinruralareas.Nevertheless,themeasuredFLFPrateremainedstableatarelativelyelevatedlevelforthenextnineyears(justunder20%),comparedtotheperiodbeforethe

methodologicalinnovationswereintroduced.TheoverallratemeasuredbytheELMPSin2012wasveryclosetotheoverallratemeasuredbytheLFS,but,asshownin

Figure1,

theELMPSreportedalargergapbetweentheratesinurbanandruralareasthantheLFS.ThedeclineintheFLFPratecontinuedthrough2020intheLFSbutwassharperinruralareas.Somerecoveryintheratewasobservedin2021.

5

Thereisnoclearmeasurement-relatedexplanationforthesharpdeclineinFLFPratesin2018and2019,althoughthedeclinein2020canbeclearlyattributedtothepandemic(SeeILOandERF2022).

3Dataandmethods

3.1Surveys

ThisresearchusesthelatestwavesoftheLaborMarketPanelSurveysforEgypt(ELMPS2018)

andTunisia(TLMPS2014).ThesesurveyswerecarriedoutbytheEconomicResearchForum(ERF)incollaborationwiththerespectivenationalstatisticaloffices.Publiclyaccessible

microdataareavailablethroughERF’sOpenAccessMicrodataInitiative(Assaadetal.2016;

Krafft,Assaad,andRahman2021;OAMDI2016;2019).Thesurveysarenationally

representativeaftertheapplicationofsampleweights,whichareusedthroughout.TheTLMPS2014sampled16,430individualsin4,521householdsandtheELMPS2018sampled61,231

individualsin15,746households.Ouranalysesfocusonworkingageindividualsaged15-64.

3.2Detectionofemploymentandwork

3.2.1Individualquestions

ThedatacollectioninstrumentfortheLMPSsismadeupofhouseholdandindividual

questionnaires.Theindividualquestionnaireusesashortreferenceperiodofsevendaystodetectthecurrentlaborforcestatusandalongreferenceperiodofthreemonthstodetecttheusuallabor

forcestatus.Enumeratorsareinstructedtoadministertheindividualquestionnairetothe

individualhimorherself,andcollectdatafromproxyrespondentsonlyafterthreeseparatevisitsaremadetoattempttomeettheindividualhimorherself.

6

Besidesadirectquestiononwhethertheindividualwasemployedduringtherelevantreferenceperiod,thosewhoanswerinthe

negativeareaskedastandardkeywordlistmadeupof15differentactivitiestodetectworkforpayorprofitinlinewiththerecommendationsregardingthemeasurementof“employment”ofthe19thICLS,withanyaffirmativeanswerineitherreferenceperiodsendingtheindividualtotheemploymentmodule.Werefertoa“yes”inanyoftheemploymentorkeywordquestionsas

5QuarterlydatarevealsthatthedeclineintheFLFPratein2020waslikelyinducedbythepandemicandwassharpestinthesecondandthirdquarters(ILOandERF2022).

6Parentsorguardiansofchildren6to14candecidewhetherornottoallowthesechildrentorespondforthemselvesortorespondontheirbehalf.

7

“marketwork,”whichis,pertheICLS,synonymouswith“employment.”Marketworkoremploymentmaybemeasuredina7-dayor3-monthreferenceperiod.

Aseparatesetofyes/nokeywordquestionsdetectparticipationinsubsistenceanddomesticworkinthepast7days.Subsistenceworkinvolvesown-useproductionofgoods(withinthe2008

systemofnationalaccounts(SNA)productionboundary)(ILO2013).Thiscoversproducingorprocessingforstorageagricultural,fishing,huntingandgatheringproducts,collectingor

processingforstorageminingandforestryproducts,includingfirewood,fetchingwater,and

manufacturinghouseholdgoods(ILO2013).Onceinvolvementinasubsistenceactivityis

detected,thequestionnaireenquiresaboutthenumberofhoursperweekspentonthatactivity.Asimilarsetofquestionsappliestodomesticactivities(alsoknownasindirectanddirectcare

work),suchascooking,laundry,cleaning,anddirectcarework.Inthispaper,ourfocusison“marketwork”oremploymentandon“subsistencework,”whichwecollectivelyrefertoas"extendedwork,”settingasideforthemomentengagementindirectandindirectcarework.

7

Thereisnoequivalentsetofsubsistenceanddomesticworkquestionsforthe3-monthsreferenceperiod,sothesamelevelsofparticipationinsubsistenceanddomesticactivitiesareassumedforthe7-dayand3-monthreferenceperiods.Anyindividualengagedineithermarketorsubsistencework(butnotsolelydomesticwork)isconsideredtobeengagedin“extended”workineitherthe7-dayor3-monthsreferenceperiods.

3.2.2Project-basedhouseholdquestions

Thehouseholdquestionnairecontainsdetailedmodulesonhouseholdfarmandnon-farm

enterprises.Eachofthesemodulesisadministeredtothemostknowledgeableindividualabout

theactivity.Thenon-farmenterprisemoduleenquiresseparatelyabouteachnon-farmactivity

thatthehouseholdengagesinandaskstherespondenttoidentifyuptothreehouseholdmembersinvolvedintheactivityinthepastthreemonthsintheorderoftheirinvolvement.

8

Non-farm

enterprisesarenecessarilyallmarket-oriented,sothereisnodifferenceinmarketandsubsistencedefinitionsforthoseworkingintheseenterprises.

Thefarmmoduleisdividedintosub-sectionsonlivestock,cropproduction,andotherfarm

products(suchasdairy,eggs,honey,oil,fish,etc.).Foreachtypeoflivestockthatthehouseholdcurrentlyowns,thequestionnaireenquiresabouttheprimarypersonwhotakescareoftheanimalandaboutuptotwootherhouseholdmemberswhoparticipateincaringfortheanimal.The

questionnairealsoenquireswhetherthehouseholdhasconsumedorsoldanyoftheanimalsduringthepast12monthstodeterminewhethertheactivityisforthepurposeofmarket

exchangeorexclusivelyforthehousehold’sownconsumption.

7Our“extendedwork”definitionisequivalenttotheICLS-19conceptof“workundertheSystemofNational

Accountsproductionboundary.”Thenewconceptof“work”underICLS-19includesunpaiddirectandindirectcareworkperformedwithinhouseholds(ILO2013).

8TheTLMPS2014questionnaireasksaboutupto6individualhouseholdmembers’involvementinnon-

agriculturalenterprises,butdoesnotaskaboutindividualinvolvementinagriculturalcropsorotheragriculturalproducts.

8

Foreachcropthatthehouseholdhascultivatedinthepast12months,thequestionnaireenquiresaboutwhointhehouseholdhasworkedthemostonthecropandaboutuptotwoother

individualswhoworkedonthecropinthepast12months.Therearealsoquestionsaboutthe

amountssoldandtheamountsofthecropsconsumedbythehouseholdoverthepast12monthstodeterminewhetherproductionwasforthemarketorforsubsistencepurposes.

Finally,fortheproductionofotheragriculturalproductssuchasdairy,eggs,oil,orfish,the

questionnaireonlyenquiresaboutsalesoftheseproductsoverthepast12monthsandaboutuptothreehouseholdmemberswhomayhavebeeninvolvedintheirproduction.Unfortunately,the

questionnairedoesnotenquireaboutthoseengagedinthisotheragriculturalproductionexclusivelyforpurposesofhouseholdconsumption.

Inouranalyses,anyhouseholdmemberthatismentionedasbeinginvolvedineitheranon-

agriculturalhouseholdenterprise,intheproductionofatypeoflivestockorcropthathasbeensoldbythehouseholdintheprevious12months,orintheproductionoftheotheragriculturalproducts,isconsideredtobeengagedin“marketadded”workor“addedemployment”eveniftheywerenotreportedasbeingemployedintheindividualquestionnaire.Thisisthereforeourmostcomprehensivemeasureof“marketwork”oremployment.

Anyindividualengagedintheproductionoflivestockorcropsexclusivelyforhousehold

consumptioninthepast12monthsisincludedinthe“extendedadded”workcategoryeveniftheydidnotreportbeinginvolvedinsubsistenceworkintheindividualquestionnaire.By

necessity,the“marketadded”and“extendedadded”statusesarefora12-monthreference

periodssincethesewerethereferenceperiodsusedinthecropsandotheragriculturalproductsmodules.

9

Ourmainfocusinthispaperistocomparethese“added”employmentandwork

definitionsusingprojectdatatothemarketandextendedworkdefinitionsobtainedexclusivelyfromanapproachthatfocusesonindividualresponsesontheiractivities.

Thevariousmeasuresofworkpresentedinthepaperarelaidoutconceptuallyin

Figure2,

whichisnotdrawntoscale.Themarket7-daydefinitionofworkisthenarrowestandcorrespondsto

thedefinitionofemploymentcurrentlyusedintheEgyptianLFSandtheTunisianEmploymentSurvey.Itissubsumedinalltheotherworkdefinitions.Theextended7-daydefinitionofwork

addstothemarket7-daydefinitionthoseengagedinsubsistenceactivitiesasascertainedbytheindividualquestionnaire,whilethemarket3-monthdefinitionaddsthosewhowereemployedinthethreemonthsreferenceperiod,butnotinthe7-dayreferenceperiod,againasascertainedbytheindividualquestionnaire.Thismayincludesomeindividualsengagedinsubsistencebutnotmarketworkinthe7-dayreferenceperiod.Theextended3-monthdefinitionofworkincludesallthoseengagedinmarketworkoremploymentinthethree-monthreferenceperiod,aswellas

thoseengagedinsubsistenceworkinthe7-dayreferenceperiod.

10

Theaddedmarketdefinition(12months)isourmostcomprehensivedefinitionofemployment.Itaddstothemarket3-monthdefinitionthosewhoreportedtobeengagedinhouseholdagriculturalornon-agricultural

9Duetotheabsenceofinformationaboutindividualhouseholdmembers’involvementincropsandotheragriculturalproductsinTunisia,our“added”measuresonlyincludeaddedinvolvementinnon-agriculturalenterprisesandlivestockrearingintheTunisiasetting.

10Asmentionedearlier,wedonothaveaseparatemeasureintheindividualquestionnaireforthoseengagedinsubsistenceworkinthethree-monthperiodbutnotinthe7-dayperiod.

9

projectsthatsoldgoodsorservicesinthemarketinthepast12months,asascertainedbythe

householdquestionnaire.Theaddedextendeddefinition(12months)addstothesubsistence

three-monthandaddedmarketdefinitionsthoseindividualswhowerenotdetectedinsubsistenceworkintheindividualquestionnairebutwerereportedtobeengagedinhouseholdagricultural

croporlivestockproductionactivitiesthatdidnotsellanyproductstothemarketinthepast12months.Itis,thus,themostcomprehensivedefinitionofworkwepresent,keepinginmindthatdomesticwork(directandindirectcarework)isoutsidethescopeofouranalysis.

Figure2.Conceptualdiagram:overlapbetweendifferentworkdefinitions

Source:Authors’creation

Notes:Nottoscale.Extended3-monthistheunionofextended7-dayandmarket3-month

3.3Covariates

Weexaminehowdetectionofemployment