雅思閱讀高階詳解

Substitute:SampleSubstitute:SampleCambridge6,Test2,PassageCompleteeachsentencewithAdevelopedsystemofAnadditionalhandThinkingaboutnumbersasconceptsseparatefromphysicalExpressingnumberdifferentlyaccordingtoclassofwasnecessaryinordertofulfilacivicwasnecessarywhenpeoplebeganpersistsinallwasusedwhentherangeofnumberwordswascanbetracedbacktoearlyEuropeanwasacharacteristicofearlynumerationSubstitute:SampleSubstitute:SampleCambridge6,Test2,PassageQuestions32-DothefollowingstatementsagreegiveninReadingPassage3.Fortheearliesttribes,theconceptofsufficiencywasmoreimportantthantheconceptofquantity.IndigenousTasmaniansusedonlyfourtermstoindicatenumbersofSomepeopleswithsimplenumbersystemsusebodylanguagetopreventmisunderstandingofexpressionsofnumber.AllcultureshavebeenabletoexpresslargenumbersTheword‘thousand’hasAnglo-SaxonIntheTsimshianlanguage,thenumberforlongobjectsandcanoesisexpressedwiththesameword.TheTsimshianlanguagecontainsbotholderandnewersystemsofEarlypeoplesfounditeasiertocountbyusingtheirfingersratherthanagroupofpebbles.Substitute:SampleSubstitute:SampleOneofthefirstgreatintellectualfeatsofayoungchildislearninghowlotalk,closelyfollowedbylearninghowtocount.Fromearliestchildhoodwearesoboundupwithoursystemofnumerationthatitisafeatofimaginationtoconsidertheproblemsfacedbyearlyhumanswhohadnotyetdevelopedthisfacility.Carefulconsiderationofoursystemofnumerationleadstotheconvictionthat,ratherthanbeingafacilitythatcomesnaturallytoaperson,itisoneofthegreatandremarkableachievementsofthehumanrace.Itisimpossibletolearnthesequenceofeventsthatledloourdevelopingtheconceptofnumber.Eventheearliestoftribeshadasystemofnumerationthat,ifnotadvanced,wassufficientforthetasksthattheyhadloperform.Ourancestorshadlittleuseforactualnumbers;insteadtheirconsiderationswouldhavebeenmoreofthekindIsthisenough?ratherthanHowmany?whentheywereengagedinfoodgathering,forexample.However,whenearlyhumansfirstbegantoreflectonthenatureofthingsaroundthem,theydiscoveredthattheyneededanideaofnumbersimplytokeeptheirthoughtsinorder.Astheybegantosettle,growplantsandherdanimals,theneedforasophisticatednumbersystembecameparamount.IIwillneverbeknownhowandwhenthisnumerationabilitydeveloped,butitiscertainthatnumerationwaswelldevelopedbythetimehumanshadformedevensemi-permanentsettlements.Substitute:SampleSubstitute:SampleEvidenceofearlystagesofarithmeticandnumerationcanbereadilyfound.TheindigenouspeoplesofTasmaniawereonlyabletocountone,two,many;thoseofSouthAfricacountedone,two,twoandone,twotwos,twotwosandone,andsoon.Butinrealsituationsthenumberandwordsareoftenaccompaniedbygesturestohelpresolveanyconfusion.Forexample,whenusingtheone,two,manytypeofsystem,thewordmanywouldmean,LookatmyhandsandseehowmanyfingersIamshowingyou.Thisbasicapproachislimitedintherangeofnumbersthatitcanexpress,butthisrangewillgenerallysufficewhendealingwiththesimpleraspectsofhumanexistence.Thelackofabilityofsomeculturestodealwithlargenumbersisnotreallysurprising.Europeanlanguages,whentracedbacktotheirearlierversion,areverypoorinnumberwordsandexpressions.TheancientGothicwordforten,tachund,isusedtoexpressthenumber100astachundtachund.Bytheseventhcentury,thewordteonhadbecomeinterchangeablewiththetachundorhundoftheAnglo-Saxonlanguage,andso100wasdenotedashundteontig,ortentimesten.TheaveragepersonintheseventhcenturyinEuropewasno!asfamiliarwithnumbersaswearetoday.Infact,toqualifyasawitnessinacourtoflawamanhadtobeabletocounttonine!Substitute:SampleSubstitute:SamplePerhapsthemostfundamentalstepindevelopingasenseofnumberisnottheabilitytocount,butrathertoseethatanumberisreallyanabstractideainsteadofasimpleattachmenttoagroupofparticularobjects.Itmusthavebeenwithinthegraspoftheearliesthumanstoconceivethatfourbirdsaredistinctfromtwobirds;however,itisnotanelementarysteptoassociatethenumber4,asconnectedwithfourbirds,tothenumber4,asconnectedwithfourrocks.Associatinganumberasoneofthequalitiesofaspecificobjectisagreathindrancetothedevelopmentofatruenumbersense.Whenthenumber4canberegisteredinthemindasaspecificword,independentoftheobjectbeingreferenced,theindividualisreadytolakethefirststeptowardthedevelopmentofanotationalsystemfornumbersand,fromthere,toarithmetic.Tracesoftheveryfirststagesinthedevelopmentofnumerationcanbeseeninseverallivinglanguagestoday.ThenumerationsystemoftheTsimshianlanguageinBritishColumbiacontainssevendistinctsetsofwordsfornumbersaccordingtotheclassoftheitembeingcounted:forcountingflatobjectsandanimals,forroundobjectsandtime,forpeople,forlongobjectsandtrees,forcanoes,formeasures,andforcountingwhennoparticularobjectisbeingnumerated.Itseemsthatthelastisalaterdevelopmentwhilethefirstsixgroupsshowtherelicsofanoldersystem.ThisdiversityofnumbernamescanalsobefoundinsomewidelyusedlanguagessuchasJapanese.Substitute:SampleSubstitute:SampleIntermixedwiththedevelopmentofanumbersenseisthedevelopmentofanabilitytocount.Countingisnotdirectlyrelatedtotheformationofanumberconceptbecauseitispossibletocountbymatchingtheitemsbeingcountedagainstagroupofpebbles,grainsofcorn,orthecounter’sfingers,Theseaidswouldhavebeenindispensabletoveryearlypeoplewhowouldhavefoundtheprocessimpossiblewithoutsomeformofmechanicalaid.Suchaids,whiledifferent,arestillusedevenbythemosteducatedintoday'ssocietyduetotheirconvenience.Allcountingultimatelyinvolvesreferencetosomethingotherthanthethingsbeingcounted.AtfirstitmayhavebeengrainsorpebblesbutnowitisamemorisedsequenceofwordsthathappentobethenamesoftheSubstitute:SampleSubstitute:Sample特殊細節(jié)（數(shù)字、大寫名詞（非抽象Question27-Awasnecessaryinordertofulfilacivicrole.Bwasnecessarywhenpeoplebeganfarming.Cwasnecessaryforthedevelopmentofarithmetic.Dpersistsinallsocieties.Ewasusedwhentherangeofnumberwordswasrestricted.FcanbetracedbacktoearlyEuropeanlanguages.GwasacharacteristicofearlynumerationSubstitute:SampleSubstitute:Sample在判斷題中，對應(yīng)的是題目中的解題原則（也被稱為考點）Fortheearliesttribes,theconceptofsufficiencywasmoreimportantthantheconceptIndigenousTasmaniansusedonlyfourtermstoindicatenumbersofSomepeopleswithsimplenumbersystemsusebodylanguagetopreventmisunderstandingofexpressionsofnumber.AllcultureshavebeenabletoexpresslargenumbersTheword‘thousand’hasAnglo-SaxonIngeneral,peopleinseventh-centuryEuropehadpoorcountingIntheTsimshianlanguage,thenumberforlongobjectsandcanoesisexpressedwiththesameTheTsimshianlanguagecontainsbotholderandnewersystemsofEarlypeoplesfounditeasiertocountbyusingtheirfingersratherthanagroupofSubstitute:SampleSubstitute:Sample第二第三第四第五第六Answer:Answer:Answer:Answer:Answer:第二第三第三第四第四第四第六第六第七Answer:Answer:Answer:Answer:Answer:NOTAnswer:Answer:Answer:Answer:NOTSubstitute:SkillpracticeSubstitute:SkillpracticeCambridge7,Test2,PassageQuestions27-ChoosethecorrectC,EandFfromthelistofheadingsbelow.ListofMIRTPasafuturePreferenceformotorisedvehiclesGovernmentauthorities’instructionsInitialimprovementsinmobilityandtransportmodesRequestforimprovedtransportinMaketeTransportimprovementsinthenorthernpartofthedistrictImprovementsintherailnetworkEffectsofinitialMIRTPmeasuresCo-operationofdistrictofficials Section Section Substitute:SkillpracticeSubstitute:SkillpracticeCambridge7,Test2,PassageQuestions31-DothefollowingstatementsagreewriterinReadingPassage3?MIRTPwasdividedintofivePriortothestartofMIRTPtheMaketedistrictwasalmostinaccessibleduringtherainyseason.PhaseIofMIRTPconsistedofasurveyofhouseholdexpenditureontransport.Thesurveyconcludedthatone-fifthor20%ofthehouseholdtransportrequirementasoutsidethelocalarea.MIRTPhopedtoimprovethemovementofgoodsfromdistricttothecountry’sSubstitute:SkillpracticeSubstitute:SkillpracticeCambridge7,Test2,PassagewiththeConstructionoffootbridges,stepsandFrequentbreakdownofbusesandtrucksinTheimprovementofsecondaryroadsandTheisolationofMaketeforpartoftheprovidedthepeopleofMaketewithexperienceinrunningbusandtruckdifferedfromearlierphasesinthatthecommunitybecamelessactivelyimprovedpathsusedfortransportupanddownwasnolongeraproblemoncetheroadshadbeencostlessthanlocallymadewasdoneonlyattherequestoflocalpeoplewhowerewillingtolendahand.HwasatfirstconsideredbyMIRTPtobeaffordableforthepeopleofthedistrict.Ihinderedattemptstomaketheexistingtransportservicesmoreefficient.JwasthoughttobethemostimportantobjectiveofPhaseSubstitute:SkillpracticeSubstitute:SkillpracticeCambridge7,Test2,PassageQuestionsletter,A,B,CorWhichofthefollowingphrasesbestdescribesthemainaimofReadingPassage3?tosuggestthatprojectssuchasMIRTPareneededinothertodescribehowMIRTPwasimplementedandhowsuccessfulitwastoexaminehowMIRTPpromotedtheuseoftowarnthatprojectssuchasMIRTParelikelytohaveseriousSubstitute:SkillSubstitute:SkillpracticeSectionThedisappointingresultsofmanyconventionalroadtransportprojectsinAfricaledsomeexpertstorethinkthestrategybywhichruraltransportproblemsweretobetackledatthebeginningofthe1980s.ArequestforhelpinimprovingtheavailabilityoftransportwithintheremoteMaketeDistrictofsouthwesternTanzaniapresentedtheopportunitytotryanewapproach.Theconceptof‘integratedruraltransport’wasadoptedinthetaskofexaminingthetransportneedsoftheruralhouseholdsinthedistrict.Theobjectivewastoreducethetimeandeffortneededtoobtainaccesstoessentialgoodsandservicesthroughanimprovedruraltransportsystem.Theunderlyingassumptionwasthatthetimesavedwouldbeusedinsteadforactivitiesthatwouldimprovethesocialandeconomicdevelopmentofthecommunities.TheMaketeIntegratedRuralTransportProject(MIRTP)startedin1985withfinancialsupportfromtheSwissDevelopmentCorporationandwasco-ondinatedwiththehelpoftheTanzaniangovernment.Substitute:SkillSubstitute:SkillpracticeSectionWhentheprojectbegan,MaketeDistrictwasvirtuallytotallyisolatedduringtherainyseason.TheregionalroadwasinsuchbadshapethataccesstothemaintownswasimpossibleforaboutthreemonthsoftheyearRoadtrafficwasextremelyrarewithinthedistrict,andalternativemeansoftransportwererestrictedtodonkeysinthenorthofthedistrict.Peoplereliedprimarilyonthepaths,whichwereslipperyanddangerousduringtherains.Beforesolutionscouldbeproposed,theproblemshadtobeunderstood.Littlewasknownaboutthetransportdemandsoftheruralhouseholds,soPhaseI,betweenDecember1985andDecember1987,focusedonresearch.Thesocio-economicsurveyofmorethan400householdsinthedistrictindicatedthatahouseholdinMaketespent,onaverage,sevenhoursadayontransportingthemselvesandtheirgoods,afigurewhichseemedextremebutwhichhasalsobeenobtainedinsurveysinotherruralareasinAfrica.Interestingfactsregardingtransportwerefound:95%wasonfoot;80%waswithinthelocality;and70%wasrelatedtothecollectionofwaterandfirewoodandtravellingtogrindingmills.Substitute:SkillpracticeSubstitute:SkillpracticeSectionHavingdeterminedthemaintransportneeds,possiblesolutionswereidentifiedwhichmightreducethetimeandburden.DuringPhaseII,fromJanuarytoFebruary1991,anumberofapproacheswereimplementedinanefforttoimprovemobilityandaccesstotransport.Animprovementoftheroadnetworkwasconsiderednecessarytoensuretheimportandexportofgoodstothedistrict.TheseimprovementswerecarriedoutusingmethodsthatwereheavilydependentonlabourInadditiontotheimprovementofroads,thesemethodsprovidedtrainingintheoperationofamechanicalworkshopandbusandtruckservices.However,thedifferencefromtheconventionalapproachwasthatthistimeconsiderationwasgiventolocaltransportneedsoutsidetheroadnetwork.Mostgoodsweretransportedalongthepathsthatprovideshort-cutsupanddownthehillsides,butthepathswerearealsafetyriskandmadethejourneyonfootevenmorearduous.Itmadesensetoimprovethepathsbybuildingsteps,handrailsandItwasuncommontofindmeansoftransportthatweremoreefficientthanwalkingbutlesstechnologicallyadvancedthanmotorvehicles.Theuseofbicycleswasconstrainedbytheirhighcostandthelackofavailablespareparts.Oxenwerenotusedatallbutdonkeyswereusedbyafewhouseholdsinthenorthernpartofthedistrict.MIRTPfocusedonwhatwouldbemostappropriatefortheinhabitantsofMaketeintermsofwhatwasavailable,howmuchtheycouldaffordandwhattheywerewillingtoaccept.Aftercarefulconsideration,theprojectchosethepromotionofdonkeys-adonkeycostslessthanabicycle—andtheintroductionofalocallymanufacturablewheelbarrow.Substitute:SkillSubstitute:SkillpracticeSectionAttheendofPhaseII,itwasclearthattheselectedapproachestoMakete’stransportproblemshadhaddifferentdegreesofsuccess.PhaseIII,fromMarch1991toMarch1993,focusedontherefinementandinstitutionalizationoftheseactivities.TheroadimprovementsandaccompanyingmaintenancesystemhadhelpedmakethedistrictcentreaccessiblethroughouttheyearEssentialgoodsfromoutsidethedistricthadbecomemorereadilyavailableatthemarket,andpricesdidnotfluctuateasmuchastheyhaddonebefore.Pathsandsecondaryroadswereimprovedonlyattherequestofcommunitieswhowerewillingtoparticipateinconstructionandmaintenance.Howevertheimprovedpathsimpressedtheinhabitants,andrequestsforassistancegreatlyincreasedsoonafteronlyafewimprovementshadbeencompleted.Substitute:SkillSubstitute:SkillpracticeTheeffortstoimprovetheefficiencyoftheexistingtransportserviceswerenotverysuccessfulbecausemostofthemotorisedvehiclesinthedistrictbrokedownandtherewerenoresourcestorepairthem.Eventheintroductionoflow-costmeansoftransportwasdifficultbecauseofthegeneralpovertyofthedistrict.Thelocallymanufacturedwheelbarrowswerestilltooexpensiveforallbutafewofthehouseholds.Modificationstotheoriginaldesignbylocalcarpenterscutproductiontimeandcosts.Otherlocalcarpentershavebeentrainedinthenewdesignsothattheycanrespondtorequests.Nevertheless,alocallyproducedwoodenwheelbarrowwhichcostsaround5000Tanzanianshillings(lessthanUS$20)inMakete,andisaboutonequarterthecostofametalwheelbarrow,isstilltooexpensiveformostpeople.Donkeys,whichwereimportedtothedistrict,havebecomemorecommonandcontribute,inparticular,tothetransportationofcropsandgoodstomarket.Thosewhohaveboughtdonkeysaremainlyfromricherhouseholdsbut,withanincreasedsupplythroughlocalbreeding,donkeysshouldbecomemoreaffordable.Meanwhile,localinitiativesarepromotingtherentingoutoftheexistingdonkeys.Itshouldbenoted,however,thatadonkey,whichat20,000Tanzanianshillingscostslessthanabicycle,isstillaninvestmentequaltoanaveragehousehold'sincomeoverhalfayear.Thisclearlyillustratestheneedforsupplementarymeasuresifonewantstoassisttheruralpoor.Substitute:SkillSubstitute:SkillpracticeSectionItwouldhavebeeneasytocriticisetheMIRTPforusingintheearlyphasesa‘top-down’approach,inwhichdecisionsweremadebyexpertsandofficialsbeforebeinghandeddowntocommunities,butitwasnecessarytostarttheprocessfromthelevelofthegovernmentalauthoritiesofthedistrict.Itwouldhavebeendifficulttorespondtotherequestsofvillagersandotherruralinhabitantswithoutthesupportandunderstandingofdistrictauthorities.SectionToday,nobodyinthedistrictarguesabouttheimportanceofimprovedpathsandinexpensivemeansoftransport.Butthisistheresultofdedicatedworkoveralongperiod,particularlyfromtheofficersinchargeofcommunitydevelopment.TheyplayedanessentialroleinraisingawarenessandinterestamongtheruralTheconceptofintegratedruraltransportisnowwellestablishedinTanzania,whereamajorprogramofruraltransportisjustabouttostart.TheexperiencesfromMaketewillhelpinthisinitiative,andMaketeDistrictwillactasareferenceforfuturework.Substitute:SkillpracticeThreeSubstitute:SkillpracticeThreeSubstitute:SkillpracticeSubstitute:SkillpracticeCambridge9,Test1,PassageQuestions14-ChoosethecorrectB-Efromthelistofheadingsbelow.ListofSeekingthetransmissionofradiosignalsfromplanetsAppropriateresponsestosignalsfromothercivilizationsVastdistancestoEarth’sclosestneighborsAssumptionsunderlyingthesearchforextra-terrestrialReasonsforthesearchforextra-terrestrialintelligenceKnowledgeofextra-terrestrialformsLikelihoodoflifeonother Section Substitute:SkillpracticeSubstitute:SkillpracticeCambridge9,Test1,PassageQuestions18-ChooseNOMOREAND/ORAeachanswer.WhatisthelifeexpectancyofWhatkindofsignalsfromotherintelligentcivilizationsareSETIscientistssearchingfor?Howmanystarsaretheworld’smostpowerfulradiotelescopesSubstitute:SkillpracticeSubstitute:SkillpracticeCambridge9,Test1,PassageQuestions21-DothefollowingwiththeviewsofwriterinReadingPassage2?Aliencivilizationsmaybeabletohelpthehumanracetoovercomeseriousproblems.SETIscientistsaretryingtofindalifeformthatresembleshumansinmanyways.TheAmericansandAustralianshaveco-operatedonjointresearchSofarSETIscientistshavepickedupradiosignalsfromseveralTheNASAprojectattractedcriticismfromsomemembersofIfasignalfromouterspaceisreceived,itwillbeimportanttorespondpromptly.Substitute:SkillSubstitute:SkillpracticeISTHEREANYBODYOUTTheSearchforExtra-terrestrialThequestionofwhetherwearealoneintheUniversehashauntedhumanityforcenturies,butwemaynowstandpoisedonthebrinkoftheanswertothatquestion,aswesearchforradiosignalsfromotherintelligentcivilizations.Thissearch,oftenknownbytheacronymSETI(searchforextra-terrestrialintelligence),isadifficultone.Althoughgroupsaroundtheworldhavebeensearchingintermittentlyforthreedecades,itisonlynowthatwehavereachedtheleveloftechnologywherewecanmakeadeterminedattempttosearchallnearbystarsforanysignoflife.Substitute:SkillSubstitute:SkillpracticeISTHEREANYBODYOUTATheprimaryreasonforthesearchisbasiccuriosity—thesamecuriosityaboutthenaturalworldthatdrivesallpurescience.WewanttoknowwhetherwearealoneintheUniverse.Wewanttoknowwhetherlifeevolvesnaturallyifgiventherightconditions,orwhetherthereissomethingveryspecialabouttheEarthtohavefosteredthevarietyoflifeformsthatweseearoundusontheplanet.Thesimpledetectionofaradiosignalwillbesufficienttoanswerthismostbasicofallquestions.Inthissense,SETIisanothercoginthemachineryofpuresciencewhichiscontinuallypushingoutthehorizonofourknowledge.However,thereareotherreasonsforbeinginterestedinwhetherlifeexistselsewhere.Forexample,wehavehadcivilizationonEarthforperhapsonlyafewthousandyears,andthethreatsofnuclearwarandpollutionoverthelastfewdecadeshavetoldusthatoursurvivalmaybetenuous.Willwelastanothertwothousandyearsorwillwewipeourselvesout?Sincethelifetimeofaplanetlikeoursisseveralbillionyears,wecanexpectthat,ifothercivilizationsdosurviveinourgalaxy,theirageswillrangefromzerotoseveralbillionyears.Thusanyothercivilizationthatwehearfromislikelytobefarolder,onaverage,thanourselves.Themereexistenceofsuchacivilizationwilltellusthatlong-termsurvivalispossible,andgivesussomecauseforoptimism.Itisevenpossiblethattheoldercivilizationmaypassonthebenefitsoftheirexperienceindealingwiththreatstosurvivalsuchasnuclearwarandglobalpollution,andotherthreatsthatwehaven’tyetdiscovered.Substitute:SkillSubstitute:SkillpracticeISTHEREANYBODYOUTIndiscussingwhetherwearealone,mostSETIscientistsadopttwogroundrules.First,UFOs(UnidentifiedFlyingObjects)aregenerallyignoredsincemostscientistsdon’tconsidertheevidenceforthemtobestrongenoughtobearseriousconsideration(althoughitisalsoimportanttokeepanopenmindincaseanyreallyconvincingevidenceemergesinthefuture).Second,wemakeaveryconservativeassumptionthatwearelookingforalifeformthatisprettywelllikeus,sinceifitdiffersradicallyfromuswemaywellnotrecognizeitasalifeform,quiteapartfromwhetherweareabletocommunicatewithit.Inotherwords,thelifeformwearelookingformaywellhavetwogreenheadsandsevenfingers,butitwillneverthelessresembleusinthatitshouldcommunicatewithitsfellows,beinterestedintheUniverse,liveonaplanetorbitingastarlikeourSun,andperhapsmostrestrictively,haveachemistry,likeus,basedoncarbonandwater.Evenwhenwemaketheseassumptions,ourunderstandingofotherlifeformsisstillseverelylimited.Wedonotevenknow,forexample,howmanystarshaveplanets,andwecertainlydonotknowhowlikelyitisthatlifewillarisenaturally,giventherightconditions.However,whenwelookatthe100billionstarsinourgalaxy(theMilkyWay),and100billiongalaxiesintheobservableUniverse,itseemsinconceivablethatatleastoneoftheseplanetsdoesnothavealifeformonit;infact,thebesteducatedguesswecanmake,usingthelittlethatwedoknowabouttheconditionsforcarbon-basedlife,leadsustoestimatethatperhapsonein100,000starsmighthavealife-bearingplanetorbitingit.Thatmeansthatournearestneighborsareperhaps100lightyearsaway,whichisalmostnextdoorinastronomicalterms.Substitute:SkillSubstitute:SkillpracticeISTHEREANYBODYOUTDAnaliencivilizationcouldchoosemanydifferentwaysofsendinginformationacrossthegalaxy,butmanyofthe