初中英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)法知識(shí)總結(jié)

./答：下面是初中英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)法總結(jié),你可參考學(xué)習(xí),或許有不全面的地方,歡迎你有不懂的問(wèn)題再具體提問(wèn)。另外,我個(gè)人認(rèn)為猜題對(duì)于提高考試成績(jī)沒(méi)有多大作用和意義,并不可取,建議你進(jìn)行全面復(fù)習(xí),打下扎實(shí)的基礎(chǔ)知識(shí),以不變應(yīng)萬(wàn)變。順祝復(fù)習(xí)順利!語(yǔ)法總復(fù)習(xí)第一節(jié)名詞與代詞名詞可分為專有名詞和普通名詞兩類。而普通名詞又可分為個(gè)體名詞、集體名詞、物質(zhì)名詞和抽象名詞。其中,個(gè)體名詞和集體名詞為可數(shù)名詞,而物質(zhì)名詞和抽象名詞為不可數(shù)名詞。名詞的復(fù)數(shù)構(gòu)成通常是在其后加—s；但以-s,-x,-ch,-sh和大部分以o結(jié)尾的名詞后加-es；以"輔音字母+y"結(jié)尾的名詞把"y"變成"i",再加-es。有些名詞的復(fù)數(shù)構(gòu)成是不規(guī)則的,有其特殊形式。有些名詞在不同的情況下,屬不同的名詞詞類,因此有時(shí)為可數(shù),有時(shí)則為不可數(shù)：名詞的格可分為主格<作主語(yǔ)>,賓格<作賓語(yǔ)>和所有格<表示所有關(guān)系>。代詞可分為人稱代詞,物主代詞,反身代詞,相互代詞,不定代詞,指示代詞,關(guān)系代詞,連接代詞和疑問(wèn)代詞等九類。名詞的用法可數(shù)名詞除非前面有冠詞或表示單數(shù)的限定詞,否則要用其復(fù)數(shù)形式,例如：Ifapersondisobeystheorder,hewillbepunishedseverely．Theteacherfirstlydividedhisstudentsintofourgroups．Thereferencebookcanbeusedtoanswerquestions,tosolveproblemsortoobtaininformationonaparticulartopic．Thesecoursesareespeciallydesignedforseniorstudents．有些名詞的復(fù)數(shù)構(gòu)成是不規(guī)則的,如：child-children,foot-feet。goose-geese,mouse-mice,man-men,ox-oxen,tooth-teeth,woman-women等。例如：Everyfallgeesef1yoverthehouse．Thedentisttoldhimthatseveralteethofhisneedtobefilled．Mrs.Smithhasthreechildren,andTonnyistheyoungestone．Ithinkwe'vegotmiceinthekitchen．有些名詞的單復(fù)數(shù)形式是一樣的,如：Chinese,Japanese,Burmese<緬甸>,Spanish<西班牙>,Lebanese<黎巴嫩>,Portuguese<葡萄牙>,Swiss<瑞士>．sheep,deer,swine<豬>,fish,carp<鯉魚>,salmon<鮭>,means,series,species,aircraft,spacecraft等。例如：Thebestfisharenearthebottom．WhentheygottotheNewWorld,SpanishconstructedtheirhouseswithMoorisharchitecturalfeatures．Isawawhitesheeprunningdowntheroad．Judgingbyhislanguage,hemustbeaJapanese．在表示一類事物時(shí),介詞of后的名詞要用復(fù)數(shù)形式。例如：Beethovenisofthegreatestmusiciansintheworld．TheAnimalArtFestivalisbeingheldatShanghaizoo,whichisoneofthemostwelcomefestivalsinthecity.Asoneofthecountriesthatbearresponsibilityfortheincident,GermanChancellorSchroederholdsthattheorganizationshouldapologizetoChinesegovernmentunconditionally.SheisoneofthethreemartyrswhowerekilledinNATO'sbombingontheChineseEmbassyinYugoslavia.大多數(shù)集體名詞可作單數(shù),也可作復(fù)數(shù),如：army,audience,class,committee,crew<全體船員,乘務(wù)員>,crowd,faculty,family,governmentgrouporchestra,public,team,union等。但有些雖然是單數(shù)形式,卻用作復(fù)數(shù),如：cattle〔牡畜〕mankind<人類>,militia<民兵>,people,police,poultry<家畜>,staff<全體職員>等。例如：ThepresidentsaidtheChineseGowrnmentispayingcloseattentiontodevelopmentsinthismatter,andcontinuestoreservetherighttotakefutureaction.Thecattle,weregrazingonthemeadownearthefarm.Theaudiencewereamusedbyhishumorousstories.Myfamilyisfarawayfromtheschool.有些名詞只有復(fù)數(shù)形式,而且也只用作復(fù)數(shù),如：clothes,glasses,spectacles,pants,arms<武器>,belongings<所有物>,customs<海關(guān)>,goods<貨物>,suburbs<郊區(qū)>,papers<文件>等；而有些名詞形式為復(fù)數(shù),卻用作單數(shù),如：electronics<電子學(xué)>,mathematics<數(shù)學(xué)>,optics<光學(xué)>,politics,statistics<統(tǒng)計(jì)學(xué)>等。例如：Theshortshewearsaremadeofleather.Linguisticsisadifficultsubjecttostudy.Heusedtostudyelectronicswhichisn’thisfavoritesuject．Ilovetoliveinthesuburbsthatareconclusive．有些名詞一般情況下以單數(shù)形式出現(xiàn),表示總體。但如果表示若干、多次或幾種時(shí),則要用其復(fù)數(shù)。這類詞有：hair,fruit,pollution,rain,difficulty,success,wind,failure,favour等。例如：ThebarberhadbeencuttinghumanhairfortwoyearsbeforehecametoLosAngeles．Motherboughtoranges,bananasandotherfruits.Thesecavescollapseeasilyinheavyrains,andgreatwinds．He’shavingfinancialdifficulties．有些名詞一般只有單數(shù)形式,它們通常是表示物質(zhì)和抽象概念的不可數(shù)名詞,像：advice,baggage,bread,corn,clothing,equipment,education,fun,furniture,food,fruit,garbage,grass,happiness,homework,housework,humanity,information,knowledge,landscape,1aughter,machinery,mankind,merchandise,money,music,nonsense,nature,population,progress,scenery,smoke,sweat,strength,traffic,thunder,ink,jewellery,damage,mail,work,soap,sugar,gold,chalk,cloth,anger,applause,cake,chocolate,poverty等。例如：Imustseektheadviceofaspecialistinthematterofthetransferofpropertyrights．Headacheisthemostcommondiseaseofhuman.Ireallygetalotoffunfromreadinginleisuretime.ThepopulationofShanghaiisverybig.有些名詞單復(fù)數(shù)的含義不同,使用時(shí)要根據(jù)上下文的意思進(jìn)行選擇。這類詞包括：communication<通訊>—communications<通訊系統(tǒng),通訊工具>,cloth<布>--clothes<衣服>,content<內(nèi)容>--contents<目錄>,convenience<便利>--conveniences<便利設(shè)備>,humanity<人類>--humanities<人文科學(xué)>,necessity<需要>-necessities<必需品>,wood<木材>-woods<樹(shù)林>,pain<疼痛>—pains<辛勞>,ruin<毀滅>-ruins<廢墟,遺跡>,sand<沙子>--sands<沙灘>,work<工作>--works<工廠,著作>等。例如："Hometown"isoneofLuXun’smostfamousworks．Theinsurancecompanypaid$98,700indamagesfortheaccident．Mychildenjoysplayingonthesands．Nopains,nogains．有些名詞只有復(fù)數(shù)形式。如：fundamentals<基本原則>,goods<貨物>,means<方法>,shorts<短褲>,sweets<歡樂(lè)>,valuables<貴重物品>等。ThefundamentalsaremadetoguaranteethesocialstabilityDon’ttakeanyvaluablesthereforthesakeofsafety.Thegoodswerepurchasedfromhimaren’texpensive.Ithinkourproblemcanbesolvedbymeansofnegotiation.名詞做定語(yǔ)時(shí),不能用作復(fù)數(shù)。例如：Pleasecheckyourexaminationpapercarefullyafterfinishing。TheChina'sCentralTelevisionStationsuppliesweatherreporteveryday,You'dbetterinformmyfamilymembersbeforeleavingforBeijing．TheUnitedStatesandGermanyaretwomemberstatesofNATO.復(fù)合名詞的復(fù)數(shù)只把其中所包含的主體名詞變成復(fù)數(shù)。如：looker<s>--on,runner<s>-up,son<s>-in-law,editor<s>-in-chief,passer<s>-by,grand-child<ren>,armyman<armymen>,room-number<s>,shoelace<s>,dinnerplate<s>,bloodtype<s>等。如果沒(méi)有主體名詞,就在最后一個(gè)詞上加復(fù)數(shù)詞尾。如：go-between<s>,drawback<s>等。注意以man,woman構(gòu)成的復(fù)合名詞,全部變成復(fù)數(shù)。如：man-servant—men-servants,woman-soldier—women-soldiers。例如：Wouldyoubringmesomedinnerplates?Wehadawonderfultalkwithsomewomen-soldiers．Don’tregardyourselvesaspassers-byundersuchcircumstances．Weareofdifferentbloodtypes．名詞的所有格一般在詞尾加’s,已有復(fù)數(shù)詞尾-s的,只加’。例如：Wemustworkhardtofulfilthecountry’splans．Theschooliswithinastone’sthrow．Nearbyareherrelatives’houses．CouldyoutellmetheSmiths’saddres?名詞所有格有時(shí)還可以和of構(gòu)成短語(yǔ),有以下兩種情況：1>它所修飾的詞前面有一個(gè)表示數(shù)量的詞,如：a,two,several,some,any,no,few等。2>它所修飾的詞前面有+個(gè)指示代詞,使句子表示某種情緒。例如：SeveralstudentsofLaoYang’sactedintheplay．WesawaplayGuoMoro's.Atbirth,theheadofababyisextremelylargeinrelationtotherestofthebody。IhavesomerecordsofNaYing's.2．代詞的用法1>人稱代詞有主格人稱代詞,在句中充當(dāng)主語(yǔ)：I,you,he,she,it,we,you,they和賓格人稱代詞,在句中充當(dāng)賓語(yǔ)：me,you,him,her,it,us,you；them。例如：Wehaven'tseeneachotherforalongtimesincehewentabroad．Letyouandmehaveanappointmentforthenextweekend.Haveyougotanyideaaboutthisissue?Telluswhateveryou'veheard.2>物主代詞可在句中作定語(yǔ),有指人的：my,our,your,his,her和their；有指物的:it,his或her<指國(guó)家或輪船>。名詞性物主代詞作表語(yǔ)、主語(yǔ)、賓語(yǔ),與of連用可作定語(yǔ)：yours,ours,theirs,mine,her,his,its。例如：Tonnyisanoldfriendofmine．Mydormitoryisnexttoyours,andMary'sisonthethirdfloor．Titanicsankwithherseveralthousandpassengers．Nexttimeit'sonmytreat．3>反身代詞亦稱自身代詞,可作賓語(yǔ)、表語(yǔ),作主語(yǔ)或賓語(yǔ)的同位語(yǔ),還與某些動(dòng)詞連用,與介詞連用構(gòu)成成語(yǔ)。有：myself,yourself,himself,herself,itself,ourselves,yourselves,themselves。例如：Thesechildrenaretooyoungtotakecareofthemselves．Don'tworry,hewillbehimselfagainsoon．AlthoughUncleGeorgeisabad-temperedman,Ithinkheisakindmaninhimself．Youshouldberesponsibleforyourself．4>相互代詞表示相互關(guān)系,有：eachother<兩者之間>和oneanother<多者之間>。例如：ImetMissScottthismorning,andwegreetedeachother．Weshouldlearnfromoneanotherandmakeprogresstogether,5>指示代詞在句中充當(dāng)主語(yǔ)、賓語(yǔ)和定語(yǔ),有：this,that,these,those。Such也是指示代詞,可作定語(yǔ)、主語(yǔ)和表語(yǔ),修飾可數(shù)名詞時(shí)要與a連用。例如：NowadaysTVprogramsaremuchmorecolorfulthanthoseOfthepast．Themoneyspentonentertainment,accordingtosomeauthorities,hasexceededthatspentonpublichealth．Iwanttoknowthis：areyoutalkingabouttheaccidentIencounteredyesterday?Hisfutureiscloselyboundwiththatofthecompany。Youshouldn'ttrustonsuchapersonwhoneverkeepshispromise．6>疑問(wèn)代詞有who,whom,whose,whatwhich。who可作主語(yǔ)和表語(yǔ)；whom作賓語(yǔ),whose,what,which可作主語(yǔ)、表語(yǔ)、賓語(yǔ)和定語(yǔ),其中作主語(yǔ)時(shí),要看所代表的人或物是單數(shù)還是復(fù)數(shù),如果不清楚,則動(dòng)詞一般用單數(shù)。Whowillseetothismatter?Whomhaveyouchosentoberesponsibleforthework?Itishardtodecidewhoseisbetter.What’sonyourschedule?Whichuniversitydidheenteratlast?

7>關(guān)系代詞有who,whom,whose,that,which。which代表事物,that代表人或物；在非限制性定語(yǔ)從句中,不能用that,而用who<m>代表人,用which代表物,或代表主句所說(shuō)的全部?jī)?nèi)容。在帶有a11,something,nothing,anything,much等的句子中不能用which,而用that。例如：Ourfootballteamwasdefeatedagain,whichshowsourplayersneedmuchmoreeffort．Thefactorynowhasover1,000workers,halfofwhomarewomen．Hepromisedtotellusallthatheknew．Whoseturntomakepresentationisbcyondme.8>連接代詞有：what,who,whonl,whose,which,用來(lái)連接主語(yǔ)從句、賓語(yǔ)從句和表浯從句。Whoever,whomever,whichever,whatever為復(fù)合代詞。例如：Ididn'tknowwhattodoatthatverymoment．ThegovernmentsellpublichousestowhoeverprovidesenoughamountOfmoney．WhomeverIworryaboutisnoneofyourbusiness．Takewhicheveryoulike,please．第二節(jié)形容詞與副詞形容詞和副詞在語(yǔ)法結(jié)構(gòu)上都有比較級(jí)和最高級(jí),它們的構(gòu)成方法基本上一樣,都與音節(jié)多少有關(guān),有些形容詞和副詞有特殊的比較級(jí)和最高級(jí)形式。二者基本分為同級(jí)比較、比較級(jí)和最高級(jí)三種形式。1．形容詞與副詞的用法形容詞中有詞形相近的,也有詞義相近的,應(yīng)注意區(qū)別。如：1>behind<在后的>hind<后部的>,considerate<周到的,體貼的>considerable<應(yīng)考慮的>,eminent<聞名的>--imminent<緊迫的>,gracious<親切的>graceful<優(yōu)雅的>,like<有生命的>alive<活的>,industrious<勤勞的>--industrial<工業(yè)的>,like<同樣的>alike<同樣的,僅作表語(yǔ)>,opposite<相對(duì)的>opposing<反對(duì)的>,perspective<透視的>respective<各自的>,sensitive<傷感的>sensible<明顯的>,etc,。例如：WedidenjoyyourstayinginBeijing,andMrs.Yanisreallyconsiderate．ProfessorLihasmanyworld-famousinventions,andheisrespectabletous．Asanyoneknowsthatweuseourfrontteethforbitingandourhindteethforchewing．It’saconsiderablesuccessforhim．2>elemental<初步的>--fundamental<基本的>,eligible<合格的>--capable<能干的>,flexible<靈活的>--changeable<可改變的>,initial<最初的>--preliminary<初步的,預(yù)備的>,slack<松弛的>--lazy<懶惰的>,valueless<無(wú)價(jià)值的>--priceless<無(wú)價(jià)的>,vivid<生動(dòng)的>一living<活的>,etc．。例如：Henry’sspeechwassovividthathisaudienceapplaudedagainandagain,Itiseasiertoadapttonewsituationsifonehasaflexibleattitude．Wehavefinishedthepreliminaryexam．Yoursuggestionispriceless,and1willconsidercarefully．3>有些詞尾為-ly的并非副詞,而是形容詞,如：lovdy,likdy,deadly,earthly<現(xiàn)世的>,leisurdy<空閑的>,weekly,yearly,manly<丈夫氣概的>,brotherly,friendly等。例如：WhatalovelygirlJennyis．Sheisalwaysreadytohelpothers．ChinaDailyisofcourseadailynewspaperbutnotaweeklyone．Heisaveryfriendlyyoungman．Ashedidn'thaveanyexperience,hewaslikelytohaveproblems．以下情況形容詞常用于后置：1>形容詞短語(yǔ),即形容詞+副詞,介詞短語(yǔ)或不定式。2>一些表語(yǔ)性形容詞要后置,如：present,available,involved,concerned,etc,。3>形容詞修飾不定代詞something,anything,everything時(shí)要后置。例如：Therewassomethingniceaboutmyfeelingthatsheknewa11．Forthisreason,aswellastheadditionalcostinvolved,flowforcecompensationisgenerallynotdesirable．Icameacrossanotherquestionhardtoanswerthen．Iwonderediftherewasaroomavailable．副詞的位置為：修飾哪個(gè)詞就放在哪個(gè)詞前面；放在系動(dòng)詞和助動(dòng)詞之后,行為動(dòng)詞和分詞之前。例如：Ihadonlyfive-dollarbillwithmewhenlboardedthetownwardtrain．Theoldlawwereinstitutedtoprotectthelongneglectedrightsofchildren.Icanhardlybelievethatheisthemurderer．Althoughhehasadvantages,itisstilltooearlytosaythatheissuretowin．2．比較級(jí)與最高級(jí)的基本形式和用法形容詞的比較級(jí)和最高級(jí)的構(gòu)成為：?jiǎn)我艄?jié)詞一般在詞尾加-er和-est。如果以-e結(jié)尾,僅加-r和-st；如末尾僅有一個(gè)輔音字母,須雙寫詞尾冉加-er和-est；如果以y結(jié)尾的,把y變i,加-er,-est；多音節(jié)單詞和雙音節(jié)詞<其中包括由分詞和分詞演變而來(lái)的形容詞,如：known,worn,wounded,shocking,striking,interesting,ect,則在其前加more和most；有些形容詞的比較級(jí)和最高級(jí)是不規(guī)則的,如：good<well>-better-best,bad<ill>-worse-worst,many<much>-more-most,little-less-least,far-farther<further>-farthest<furthest>。有些形容詞沒(méi)有比較級(jí)形式,如：absolute,chief,entire,eternal,excellent,fatal,final,foremost,inevitable,infinite,main,naked,perfect,possible,primary,right,sufficient,supreme,universal,utter,vital,whole,wooden,etc,例如：Maryisthebeststudentintheclass．Furthernegotiationwillbeconductednextmonth．Thefoodwehaveissufficient.Needlesstosay,heisstrongerthanhisopponent．一般副詞的比較級(jí)和最高級(jí)與形容詞一樣,單音節(jié)的以在詞尾加-er和-est構(gòu)成,多音節(jié)的以加more和most的方法構(gòu)成；有些比較特殊,如：well—better-best,badly-worse-worst,much-more-most,little-less-least。以-ly結(jié)尾的副詞,在其前面加more,most,例如：Tonnyrunsmostquicklythananyotherstudentsintheclass．Whichdoyoulikebest,ThornBirds,GoneWiththeWindOrGreatExpectation?Ipreferlesssugarinthemilk．Shegetsmoreincomeeverymonththanherhusband．形容詞和副詞的原級(jí)比較由"as+形容詞或副詞<或后跟名詞或短語(yǔ)>+as"構(gòu)成,"as…as’’前可加not,just,almost,nearly,quite,twice,severaltimes等詞修飾。否定式中not后面的as可改為so。例如：Runningforfifteenminuteswillburnasmanycaloriesaswalkingforthirtyminutes．HenanprovinceisseveraltimesaslargeasShanghai．Jimmyhasasnervousawayspeakingashisfather．Gettingridofabadhabitisn'tsosimpleastakingitup．形容詞和副詞的比較級(jí)形式為："形容詞<副詞>比較級(jí)+than+…",應(yīng)注意than前后相比較的人或物要一致。比較級(jí)前可以跟even,much,still等副詞修飾比較級(jí),表示強(qiáng)調(diào)。例如：Motherworriedmuchmoreaboutmyyoungerbrotherthanshedidaboutme．SoundtravelsfasterthroughwaterthanthroughIair．TheeconomicdevelopmentinSouthChinaisfasterthanthatinNorthChina．MybooksaremuchmorethanLiPing's．形容詞和副詞的最高級(jí)的形式分別為："the+形容詞最高級(jí)十名詞+X圍表達(dá)"和"副詞最高級(jí)+名詞+X圍表達(dá)",副詞的比較級(jí)和最高級(jí)不需要加the。例如：Ourforeignexchangereservedidn'tdeclinedespitetheworstfloodinsixtyyears．Ifinisbedtheworkmoresuccessfullythanhehadexpected．應(yīng)注意以下表達(dá)式的含義：thesame…as<和……一樣>,nolessthan<不少于>,notlessthan<只有>,hadbetter<最好>,lessthan<不到>,moreorless<或多或少>,otherthan<除了>,ratherthan<而不是>,themore…themore/less<越……就越……>例如：Iamsurethattheamountofmoneyusedinrepayingaloanwouldhavethesamevalueastheamountofmoneyborrowed．Youhadbetterfinisllyourhomeworktodayfortheteacherwillcollectittomorrow．Wehavereceivedtendozenofpersonalcomputerswhicharelessthantheamountweordered．Thevisltorstotheexhibitionwerenotlessthanthreehundred,whichdisappointedthemverymuch．第三節(jié)從句從句分為定語(yǔ)從句,狀語(yǔ)從句和名詞從句三大類。定語(yǔ)從句又分為限定性和非限定性從句兩種,由關(guān)系代詞或關(guān)系副詞引導(dǎo),修飾主句的某個(gè)成分。狀語(yǔ)從句分為時(shí)間、結(jié)果、讓步、原因、條件與行為方式狀語(yǔ)從句。名詞從句包括主語(yǔ)、賓語(yǔ)、表語(yǔ)和同位語(yǔ)從句與therebe句型。1．定語(yǔ)從句限定性定語(yǔ)從句中that可代表人和事,而which只代表事；二者在從句中作主語(yǔ)或賓語(yǔ)。that作賓語(yǔ)時(shí)常可省略,which則不能,而且其后的"不與物動(dòng)詞+介詞’’中的介詞不能省略。which作賓語(yǔ)時(shí),先行詞與which之間的介詞不能省。例如：Thefirstdollthatcouldsay"mama"wasinventedin1830．Thesecondhalfofhisvoyagewasbyfarthemoredangerouspart,duringwhichhesailedroundtheCapeHorn．代表a11,anything,something,nothing,much等詞時(shí),用that而不用which,that作賓語(yǔ)可省略。例如：Icareanythingthathassomethingtodowithit．You'dbetterdosomethinghepreferstodotopleasehim．Thatisthelasttimewemeteachother．Icameacrossthewomanyoutoldmeaboutyesterday．who和whom引導(dǎo)的從句用來(lái)修飾人,分別作從句的主語(yǔ)和賓語(yǔ)。where是關(guān)系副詞,用于表示地點(diǎn)的定語(yǔ)從句,而when用來(lái)表示時(shí)間。whose是關(guān)系代詞,修飾名詞作定語(yǔ)。例如:HenryFordisthepersonwhoismostresponsiblefordevelopingtheideaofmassproduction．Thekneeisthejointwherethethighbonemeetsthelargeboneofthelowerleg．Thenextmorning,whenshecamedowntobreakfast,Marywasbeamingwiththepleasureofanew,greatdiscovery．Thevisitingprofessorisafamousscientistwhosesonstudiesinmydepartment．在下列情況,限定性定語(yǔ)從句的關(guān)系代詞可以省略：1>當(dāng)關(guān)系代詞在從句中作賓語(yǔ)或表語(yǔ)；或它們?cè)趶木渲凶鹘樵~的賓語(yǔ),而該介詞又在句末時(shí)；2>當(dāng)先行詞是that,all,only,everything,something,nothing等代詞時(shí),或先行詞前有一個(gè)最高級(jí)形容詞修飾時(shí)；3>當(dāng)先行詞前有only,any,all,first,no,last等修飾時(shí),或先行詞就是time,moment,way<anyway>,direction,distance等名詞時(shí),關(guān)系代詞即可省略。例如：Thedelegationwehadbeenwaitingforfinallyarrived．Imetthewomanyoutoldmeabout．Shegavemeallshecouldafford．WithTVwecanseethingshappenalmostattheexactmomenttheyarehappening．非限定性定語(yǔ)從句,其作用為：對(duì)所修飾的成分作進(jìn)一步的說(shuō)明,它與主句用逗號(hào)隔開(kāi)。此類從句省略后其余部分仍可成立。在非限定性定語(yǔ)從句中,which可代表前面的整個(gè)句子；代表人時(shí)只能用who,whom,而不能用that；as也可用作關(guān)系代詞。例如:Thetelephone,asweknow,wastheinventionofAlexanderGrahamBell．TheLittleWhiteHouseinWarmSpringswastheGeorgiahomePresidentFranklinD．Roosevelt,whodiedthereonApril12,1945．Livinginadamphouseforalongtimeisharmfultoone’shealth,whichisknowntoeveryone．2．狀語(yǔ)從句狀語(yǔ)從句可分為：時(shí)間狀語(yǔ)從句<主要由when,whenever,after,before,a5,slnce,once,assoonas,Until,while等連詞引導(dǎo)>,結(jié)果狀語(yǔ)從句<由so…that和such…that連接>,讓步狀語(yǔ)從句<由though,although,nomatter,evenif,however,whatever等詞引導(dǎo)>,原因狀語(yǔ)從句<由as,because,since和for引導(dǎo)>,條件狀語(yǔ)從句<由if,whether,aslongas,providedthat等詞引導(dǎo)>,地點(diǎn)狀語(yǔ)從句<由where引導(dǎo)>,行為方式狀語(yǔ)從句<由as引導(dǎo)>。有時(shí)條件狀語(yǔ)從句中,主句不可以用將來(lái)時(shí),而用一般時(shí)代替。例如：ThesmallgreenishflowersoftheelmtreeappearintheSpring,longbeforetheleavesgrow.QiongYao'snovelsusedtobesopopularthatherbooksappearedonbest-sellerlists.Gasballoonislesssafethanhotballoonbecauseitmaycatchfire.Uniformacceleration<同樣的加速>occursiftherateofchangeremainsthesameoversuccessiveequalintervalsoftime．ThousandsofChinesecollegestudentswenttotheUSConsulateShanghai,wheretheyprotestedNATO'sbombingatChina'sEmbassyinYugoslavia.狀語(yǔ)從句中的"主語(yǔ)+be"可以省略,前提是：從句主語(yǔ)和主句主語(yǔ)一致,且從句謂語(yǔ)"be"省略后的結(jié)構(gòu)為"連詞+現(xiàn)在分詞／過(guò)去分詞介詞短語(yǔ)／形容詞／名詞短語(yǔ)"。>例如：Whenwellfitted,glassescancorrectmostsightdefectsinhealthyeyes．Ifnecessary,Iwouldliketoseeyouinyouroffice.Althoughseriouslywounded,henevercomplained．3．名詞從句名詞從句包括主語(yǔ)從句、賓語(yǔ)從句,其中有介詞與形容詞的賓語(yǔ)從句、表語(yǔ)從句和同位語(yǔ)從句。主語(yǔ)從句主語(yǔ)從句常出現(xiàn)在itis+名詞、形容詞、分詞+主語(yǔ)從句"的形式中。例如：ItisreportedthatTaiwanesepopsingerMengTingweiwillholdasoloconcertinShanghaisomedaythismonth．Itmustbepointedoutthatyouhavefailedtomeetthedeadline．ItusuallyhappenedthatIwaslatebecauseoftrafficjams.主語(yǔ)從句還可用when,where,how,why,whether等連接副詞,和who,whom,whose,what,which,whoever,whatever,whichever等連接代詞來(lái)引起。例如：Howtoarrangethemeetingisnotyourtask．Whosecandidatewillwintheelectionisthequestionbothpoliticalpartiesareasking．WhenIleaveismyowndecision.Whoeverwillgotothepartywon'tchangemymindofstayingathome．2>賓語(yǔ)從句賓語(yǔ)從句可由that,疑問(wèn)代詞或副詞how,why和where等引出。例如：Topostponetheconferenceuntilnextmonthindicatedthattheywereunprepared．Nearlya11thestaffagreedwithwhatIsaid．Everyoneworriedaboutherbecausenoonewasawareofwhereshehadgone．Couldyouoffermoredetailsexceptthatithappenedatnight?由what,whether,how引導(dǎo)的賓語(yǔ)從句可用在介詞后,而由that引導(dǎo)的從句只跟but,besides,except,in,save之后。例如:Icanhardlybelieveinwhattheyhavedone.Hedoesn’tknowmyphonenumberexceptthatthecitycodeis021.一些表語(yǔ)性的形容詞,如：alarmed,amazed,annoyed,astonished,certain,confident,disappointed,glad,pleased,proud,sad,shocked,sure,surprised,worried,ect.做表語(yǔ)時(shí),后面可跟由that,how等引導(dǎo)的賓語(yǔ)從句。例如：Iwasamazedhowhecouldpasstheexamwithoutattendingthelectures．HeisconfidentthathewillpasstheBand6examination．Shewassurprisedhowsimplehisproblemis．Weareallpleasedthathewillbeabletopassthefinalexamination.3>表語(yǔ)從句表語(yǔ)從句對(duì)主語(yǔ)的內(nèi)容起解釋和闡述的作用；若表語(yǔ)從句用that引起,that起連接作用,不能省略。b表語(yǔ)從句也可用連接詞how,when,where,why,what引起。由because引起的表語(yǔ)從句通常只用在"this／that／itisbecause"結(jié)構(gòu)中。例如：Alogarithm<對(duì)數(shù)>iswhatisknowninalgebraexponent<代數(shù)的指數(shù)>．OnethingIadmiremostaboutthemisthattheyarehospitable．Sheworkstoohard；Thatiswhysheisexhausted．Imustpointoutthatwhereyouintendtobuildasuper-marketiswheretheelderlydoexerciseeveryday．4>同位語(yǔ)從句同位語(yǔ)從句是由兩個(gè)或兩個(gè)以上同一層次語(yǔ)言單位組成的結(jié)構(gòu),其中前項(xiàng)與后項(xiàng)所指相同,句法功能相同。同位語(yǔ)從句由that引導(dǎo),也可由whether,how,why,where,when等來(lái)引導(dǎo)。例如：Sheignoredtheteacher'sinstructionthatshemuststudyhard．ThequestionwhetherornotIshouldhelphiminsuchacasetroubledmegreatly．第四節(jié)動(dòng)詞不定式1．不定式的基本形式與結(jié)構(gòu)動(dòng)詞不定式指通常由to加上動(dòng)詞原形<如towrite>所構(gòu)成的一種非限定性動(dòng)詞形式,但在有些情況下to可以省略。動(dòng)詞不定式有進(jìn)行體和完成體<如上tobewriting,tohavewritten>,也有被動(dòng)態(tài)<如tobewritten>,所有的主動(dòng)詞,不論是與物動(dòng)詞還是不與物動(dòng)詞,也不論是動(dòng)作動(dòng)詞還是狀態(tài)動(dòng)詞,都有不定式形式。助動(dòng)詞除be和have外,沒(méi)有不定式形式。動(dòng)詞不定式在語(yǔ)法功能上可作主語(yǔ)、賓語(yǔ)、表語(yǔ)、定語(yǔ)和狀語(yǔ)。2．不定式的用法1>不定式結(jié)構(gòu)作主語(yǔ)TegetcontactwithhisfamilyinTaiwanmadehimextremelyhappysincetheyseparatedmorethan40yearsago．Tofinishthattaskinsuchashorttimeisreallyachallenge．在上述情況下,如果不定式較長(zhǎng),顯得頭重腳輕,則可由代詞讓作形式主語(yǔ)<形式主語(yǔ)it不可由that或this等其他代詞代替>,而將不定式放到后面。如：ItmadehimextremelyhappytogetcontactwithhisfamilyinTaiwansincetheyseparatedmorethan40yearsago．Johnadmittedthatitisalwaysdifficultforhimtobeontime．不定式結(jié)構(gòu)所表示的動(dòng)作是誰(shuí)做的,即不定式的邏輯主語(yǔ),通?？梢酝ㄟ^(guò)forsb.todosth.結(jié)構(gòu)表達(dá)：Itisquiteimportantforustoreadgoodbooksduringageneralreview．Itisnotdifficultfotthosetalentedstudentstopasstheexam.在某些形容詞<如careless,clever,considerate,foolish,good,impolite,kind,naughty,nice,silly,stupid等>作表語(yǔ)時(shí),不定式后可以加of來(lái)引導(dǎo)出其邏輯主語(yǔ)：Itisverykindofyoutotellmethetruth．Itisstupidofhimtodosuchasillything．2>不定式作賓語(yǔ)不定式作賓語(yǔ)有兩種：一種是與物動(dòng)詞后直接跟帶to的不定式,另一種是"與物動(dòng)詞+疑問(wèn)詞+帶to的不定式。與物動(dòng)詞+帶to的不定式結(jié)構(gòu):只能跟動(dòng)詞不定式的動(dòng)詞,常見(jiàn)的有:afford,agree,aim,appear,ask,believe,care,claim,decidedemand,desire,determine,expect,fail,happen,hesitate,hope,intend,learn,long,manage,offer,pretend,promise,prepare,refuse,seek,swear,undertake,want,wish等。Hemanagedtosolvethecomplicatedproblem.Thestrangerofferedtoshowmetheway.Mr.SmithundertooktobuildanewplantinSouthAfrica.動(dòng)詞+疑問(wèn)代<副>詞+不定式：這類動(dòng)詞常見(jiàn)的有advise,decide,findout,forget,inquire,know,learn,see,regard,remember,teach,tell,understand,wonder等。常見(jiàn)的疑問(wèn)代<副>詞有:what,when,where,which,how,whether等。Hedoesnotknowwhentostart.Youcandecidewhethertocontinueortostop.Iwillshowyouhowtodealwithit.有時(shí),不定式可由it代替,而把不定式放到后面去。這可以用這一結(jié)構(gòu)表達(dá)：動(dòng)詞<如find,think,consider,feel等>+it+形容詞+不定式。Sheconsidersitnecessarytomakefriendswithhim.Wefinditdifficulttofinishallthehomeworkbefore9o’clock.3>不定式做表語(yǔ)一種情況為主語(yǔ)是不定式<表示條件>；表語(yǔ)也是不定式<表示結(jié)果>：Toseeistobelieve.Toworkmeanstoearnaliving．另一種情況為主語(yǔ)是以aim,duty,hope,idea,job,plan,problem,purpose,thing,wish等名詞為中心的短語(yǔ),或以what引導(dǎo)的名詞性從句,不定式表語(yǔ)對(duì)主語(yǔ)起補(bǔ)充說(shuō)明作用：Hisaimistostudyabroadinthenearfuture．Themostimportantthingistonegotiatewiththemabouttheprice．WhatIwanttosayistoforgetalltheunhappyexperience．4>不定式作定語(yǔ)不定式結(jié)構(gòu)作名詞詞組修飾語(yǔ)主要有三種類型：第一種,被修飾的名詞詞組是不定式的邏輯賓語(yǔ)。例如：Therewasreallynothingtofear．Hegavemeaninterestingbooktoread．如果不定式是不與物動(dòng)詞,后面就得加相應(yīng)的介詞。例如：Maryneedsafriendtoplaywith．Thatgirlhasnothingtoworryabout．Theyhaveastrictteachertolistento．Althoughthefilmhadbeenonfortenminutes,Istillwasnotabletofindachairtositon．第二種,被修飾的名詞詞組是不定式的邏輯主語(yǔ)；例如：Haveyougotakeytounlockthedoor?Theactiontobetakeniscorrect．Thereisnothingtobegainedbypretending．第三種,被修飾的名詞詞組是不定式的同位結(jié)構(gòu)。這類名詞通常是表示企圖、努力、傾向、目的、愿望、is算、能力、意向等意義的名詞：ability,attempt,effort,impulse,inclination,wish等。例如：Herdaughterwillmakeanevenbiggerefforttopleaseher．Ihavenowishtoquarrelwithyou．NeitherofthemhadanyinclinationtodobusinesswithMary.5>不定式作狀語(yǔ)不定式結(jié)構(gòu)在句中作狀語(yǔ)通常都能轉(zhuǎn)換為限制性狀語(yǔ)從句。例如作原因狀語(yǔ)：Theyarequitesurprisedtoseethegreatchangestakingplaceinthearea．Theyarequitesurprisedbecausetheyseethegreatchangestakingplaceinthearea．Hewasluckytoarrivebeforedark．Hewasluckybecausehearrivedbeforedark．作目的狀語(yǔ)：Sheraisedhervoicetobehearedbetter．Sheraisedhervoicesothatshecouldheardbetter．WewentviaHeidelbergtomissthetrafficjam．WewentviaHeidelbergsothatwecouldmissthetrafficjam．作結(jié)果狀語(yǔ)：TheFrenchfootballteamplayedsosuccessfullyastodefeattheBrazilians．TheFrenchfootballteamplayedsosuccessfullythattheyevendefeatedtheBrazilians．Hegottothestationonlytobetoldthetrainhadgone．Hegottothestationandwastoldthatthetrainhadgone．不帶to的不定式的使用動(dòng)詞不定式通常帶to,但在有些搭配中不帶to,在另一些搭配中可帶to可不帶to。歸納起來(lái),以下情況下使用不帶to不定式：1>在can／could,/may／might,will／would,shall／should,must,need,dare等情態(tài)動(dòng)詞之后,動(dòng)詞不定式不帶to。2>在表示感覺(jué)意義的動(dòng)詞,如see,feel,watch,notice,smell,hear,observe等后,或是表示"致使"意義的動(dòng)詞,如have,let,make等后,動(dòng)詞不定式不帶to。例如：Ioftenheardhimsaythathewouldstudyhard．Imusthavehimseehisownmistakes．但是,當(dāng)這類結(jié)構(gòu)轉(zhuǎn)換為被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)時(shí),后面的不帶to不定式一般轉(zhuǎn)換為帶to不定式。例如：Hewasoftenheardtosaythathewouldstudyhard．Afterhehadfinishedspeaking,hewasmadetoanswerinnumerablequestions．3>在動(dòng)詞help之后可用不帶to的不定式,也可用帶to的不定式。例如：Helptheoldlady<to>carrytheheavybox.4>在hadbetter,wouldrather,may／mightaswell,ratherthan,cannotbut等搭配之后,動(dòng)詞不定式也不帶to。例如：Unlessyoufeeltoilltogoout,Iwouldrathernotstayathometonight．Shecouldnotbutcriticizehisfoolishbehaviour.5>在makedo,makebelieve,letdrop,1etfall,1etfly,letslip,letdrive,letgooff,hearsay,heartell,leavegoof等固定搭配中,用不帶to的動(dòng)詞不定式。例如：Theyletgooftherope．他們松開(kāi)了繩子。Johnletflyatorrentofabuseatme．約翰朝我痛罵了一頓。I'veheardtellofhim．我聽(tīng)說(shuō)過(guò)他。Someofthefacultywereletgoforlackofthestudents．由于生源不足,一些教職員工被解雇了。6>在介詞but,except之后,如果其前有動(dòng)詞do的某種形式,其后不定式一般不帶to,反之則必須帶to,表示"不得不,只能"。例如：Hewilldoanythingexceptworkonthefarm．Therewasnothingleftfortheenemytodobutsurrender．Thespywasbothhungryandcold；therewasnothingleftforhimbuttogivein．Ihadnochoicebuttowaittillitstoppedraining．下面一些短語(yǔ)是固定搭配,不帶to：cannothelpbut,cannotchoosebut,cannotbut,donothingbut,havenothingtodobut。例如：Icannotbutadmirehiscourage.如果上述句中有do,to省略：IdidnothingbutwatchTVlastnight．如果是下面一個(gè)固定搭配,就帶to：Ihavenochoicebuttogiveupmyidea.7>緊跟在why或whynot之后的動(dòng)詞不定式總是不帶to。但是,緊跟在who,what,which,whether等連接詞后的不定式帶to。例如：Whystandupifyoucansitdown?Whynotaskyourteacherwhenyoudon'tunderstandthemeaning?Youneedn'tdecideyetwhethertostudyartsorscience．4．不定式的完成式和進(jìn)行式1>構(gòu)成完成式：to+havedone進(jìn)行式：to+bedoing2>用法完成式：如果不定式所表示的動(dòng)作<狀態(tài)>發(fā)生在主要謂語(yǔ)動(dòng)作之前,那么不定式就要用其完成式。進(jìn)行式：如果主要謂語(yǔ)動(dòng)作<情況>發(fā)生時(shí),不定式所表示的動(dòng)作正在發(fā)生,那么不定式就要用其進(jìn)行式。例如：Shefeelsrelaxedtohavefinishedwritingherthesisbeforethedeadline．TheVikingsarebelievedtohavediscoveredAmerica．Whenyoucalledmelastnight,Ihappenedtobeworkingonthecomputer．5．不定式的被動(dòng)形式當(dāng)不定式的邏輯主語(yǔ)是動(dòng)作的承受者時(shí),不定式要用被動(dòng)形式,包括它的一般式和完成式。例如：Fortwelveyears,SpanishcensorshipdidnotallowLorca'snametobementionedandhisworktobepublished．Thesnowwassupposedtohavebeenblownoffthemountain．6．不定式的否定形式否定形式是在不定式的標(biāo)志to前加not。例如：Idecidednottoaskhimagain．Pleaseremembernottoleavethelightsonwhenyouareout．第五節(jié)動(dòng)名詞1．動(dòng)名詞的形式:動(dòng)名詞是由動(dòng)詞原形+ing構(gòu)成<如writing>,有完成時(shí)態(tài)和被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)<如havingwritten,beingwritten>。2．動(dòng)名詞的用法動(dòng)名詞通常在句中作主語(yǔ)和賓語(yǔ)。1>動(dòng)名詞作主語(yǔ)Goingtothecollegeisthelittleboy'sdream．Keepingstudyinghardwillmakeyoupasstheexam．2>動(dòng)名詞作賓語(yǔ)有些動(dòng)詞后面只能帶動(dòng)名詞作賓語(yǔ),不能帶不定式作賓語(yǔ)。此類動(dòng)詞常見(jiàn)的有：admit,acknowledge,anticipate,appreciate,avoid,consider,contemplate,defer,delay,deny,detest,dislike,ensure,enjoy,escape,excuse,evade,facilitate,fancy,favour,finish,forbid,imagine,include,keep,mind,miss,postpone,practise,resent,resist,risk,suggest,quit,worth等。例如：Johnwasconsideringbuyinganewcar.Ihopeyoudidn’tcontemplatecomingwithusonthistrip．Thewitnessdeniedhavingseentheaccusedman．Iwouldappreciateyourkeepingitasecret．3>某些短語(yǔ)后面只能接動(dòng)名詞,不能接不定式。此類短語(yǔ)常見(jiàn)的有：be<get>usedto,beaccustomedto,bededicatedto,bedevotedto,bebusy,becommittedto,besujectto,cannothelp,cannotresist,cannotstand,confessto,feellike,giveup,havetrouble<in>,havedifficulty<in>,haveagood／hardtime<in>,havefun<in>,haveanobjectionto,itisnogood／use,keepon,insiston,lookforwardto,objectto,payattentionto,putoff,resortto,succeedin等。例如：Icannotstandgettingupearlyinthemorning．Ihavenodifficulty<in>reachingthetopofthemountain.Thereisnousestayingon．Icannotresist<his>bargaining．Althoughpunctualhimself,theprofessorwasquiteusedtostudents’beinglateforhislecture.4>動(dòng)詞或短語(yǔ)后面也可以接動(dòng)名詞的被動(dòng)形式。用主動(dòng)形式還是被動(dòng)形式,要根據(jù)句子的意思而定。例如:Carlosjustmissedbeingcaught．Thatpersonworedarkglassestoavoidbeingrecognized．Iobjecttobeingtreatedlikeachild．3．另一類動(dòng)詞后面可以帶動(dòng)名詞做賓語(yǔ),也可以帶不定式作賓語(yǔ)。這類動(dòng)詞又可以分為兩種：1>帶動(dòng)名詞作賓語(yǔ)與帶不定式作賓語(yǔ)而意義無(wú)多大區(qū)別的動(dòng)詞a>在begin,cannotbear,cease,con