住房和凈零排放 Housing and net zero 2024

commonslibrary.parliament.uk

ResearchBriefing

8July2024

ByGeorgiaRowe,FeliciaRankl

Housingandnetzero

Summary

1Targetsfordecarbonisinghomes

2Measuringenergyefficiencyandenvironmentalimpact

3Decarbonisingexistinghomes

4Decarbonisingnewhomes

5Furtherreading

NumberCBP8830

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Housingandnetzero

3CommonsLibraryResearchBriefing,8July2024

Contents

Summary4

1Targetsfordecarbonisinghomes8

1.1Whydohomesneedtobedecarbonised?8

1.2HeatandBuildingsStrategy(October2021)12

1.3Strategiesinthedevolvedadministrations14

2Measuringenergyefficiencyandenvironmentalimpact16

2.1Energyperformancecertificates(EPCs)16

2.2ConcernsaboutEPCs18

2.3ProposedreformstoEPCs20

3Decarbonisingexistinghomes23

3.1Governmenttargetsandstrategies23

3.2Requirementsforprivatelyandsociallyrentedhomes25

3.3Othermeasurestoincentiviseretrofittingandmovetolow-carbon

heatingsystems28

3.4Concernsaboutprogress31

4Decarbonisingnewhomes35

4.1Requirementsfornewhomes35

4.2Updatestoenergyefficiencyrequirements37

4.3ConcernsabouttheFutureHomesStandard43

5Furtherreading46

5.1LibrarybriefingsandPOSTnotes46

5.2Committeereports46

5.3Otherreports47

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4CommonsLibraryResearchBriefing,8July2024

Summary

ResidentialbuildingsareasignificantsourceofcarbonemissionsintheUK.ReducingcarbonemissionsfromnewandexistinghomesisthereforepartofstrategiestomeettheUK’snetzerotarget.

Carbonemissionsfromhomes

Thegovernmenthassetalegallybinding

targettoreducetheUK’snet

’0%by2050

comparedwith1990levels.Thisisknownasthe

In2022,emissionsfromresidentialbuildingsaccountedfor

afifth(20%)of

greenhousegasemissionsintheUK.

TheClimateChangeCommittee(CCC),

thegovernment’sadvisorybody,said

theUKwillnotmeetitsemissions

targets“withoutnearcompletedecarbonisationofthehousingstock”.

Emissionsfromresidentialbuildingscomemainlyfromfuelcombustion(theburningofoilandgasforheatingandhotwater)andelectricityuse.Homescanbedecarbonisedbyinstallinglow-carbonheatingsystems(suchasheatpumps),fittinginsulationtoimprovetheirenergyefficiencyandinstalling

renewableenergysystems(suchassolarpanels).

Assessingtheenergyperformanceofhomes

Energyperformancecertificates(EPCs)arecommonlyusedtoassessand

comparetheenergyperformanceofhomes.EPCsforhomesincludetwo

ratings:anenergyefficiencyratingandanenvironmentalimpactrating.Bothareratedonascaleof1to100andsplitintobands(AtoG).

WhenEPCsarediscussed,thefocusisusuallyontheenergyefficiencyrating.Itisbasedonthecostofenergyrequirementspersquaremetreperyearofabuildingtosupplyitsfixedbuildingservices(suchasheatingandlighting).

Todeterminetheenergyefficiencyratingofahome,EPCassessorsusethe

standardassessmentprocedure

(SAP).Forexistinghomes,whereinformationmaynotbeavailable,EPCassessorswillmakeassumptions.ThisiscalledthereducedSAP(RdSAP).

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5CommonsLibraryResearchBriefing,8July2024

ConcernsaboutEPCsandproposedreforms

TheCCChasarguedthat

EPCsarenot“fitforpurpose”

toassesstheenergyefficiencyofhomesandtosetretrofittingtargets.Forexample,theCCChasnotedthat,becausetheenergyefficiencyratingisbasedoncostandgasisrelativelycheaperthanelectricity,homeswithagasboilermayberatedasmoreenergyefficientthanhomeswithaheatpump.

TheUKGovernment(forEnglandandWales)andtheScottishGovernment

haveproposedreformstoEPCs.TheUKGovernmenthasproposed

replacing

theSAPwithanewmethodology:thehomeenergymodel(HEM).

TheScottishGovernmenthasproposedrenamingtheenergyefficiencyrating‘costrating’and

addinginformationtoEPCs(forexample,ontheheatingsystem).

Targetsandpoliciestodecarbonisehomes

TargetsandstrategiestodecarboniseexistingandnewhomesdifferacrosstheUK.TheUKGovernmentsetoutitspoliciesfordecarbonisinghomesinthe

HeatandBuildingsStrategy

(October2021).Ithassetatargetfor“asmanyhomes[inEnglandandWales]aspossibletoachieveEPCbandCby2035”.

TheScottishGovernmentsetoutitsplansfordecarbonisinghomesinits

Heat

inBuildingsStrategy

(October2021).ItsaidallhomesinScotlandshouldmeetatleastEPCbandCby2033“wherefeasibleandcost-effective”.TheScottishGovernmenthasproposedanew

HeatinBuildingsBill

torequirehomeownersinScotlandtomeetaminimumenergyefficiencystandardby2033.

AlthoughtheWelshGovernmentandtheNorthernIrelandExecutivehavenotpublishedspecificstrategiesontheirplansfordecarbonisinghomes,they

haveincludedcommitmentsinotherstrategies:theWelshGovernmentinits

emissionsreductionplanforitssecond(2021to2025)carbonbudget,

andtheNorthernIrelandExecutiveinits

EnergyStrategy

(December2021).

Decarbonisingexistinghomes

Thereiscurrentlynolegalrequirementforexistinghomestoberetrofittedorforlow-carbonheatingtechnologies(suchasheatpumps)tobeinstalledinexistinghomes.ExceptionsapplytoprivatelyrentedhomesandhomesownedbylocalauthoritiesandhousingassociationsinsomepartsoftheUK:

?

PrivatelyrentedhomesinEnglandandWalesmusthaveatleastanEPC

ratingofE

(since2020).TheScottishGovernmenthasalsoproposed

a

minimumenergyefficiencystandardforprivatelyrentedhomes.

?TheWelshGovernmentandScottishGovernmentset

minimumenergy

efficiencystandardsforsociallyrentedhomes.

TheUKGovernmentsaid

Housingandnetzero

6CommonsLibraryResearchBriefing,8July2024

itwould

consultonsetting“along-termregulatorystandard”

forsociallyrentedhomesinEngland.

Toincentivisehomeownerstoretrofittheirpropertiesandinstalllow-carbonheatingtechnologies,theUKGovernmentandthedevolvedadministrationshavevariousschemesthatprovidehomeownerswithfinancialsupport.TheseschemesandtheireligibilitycriteriadifferacrosstheUK.

Concernsaboutprogress

TheCCChasexpressedconcernthat

the“currentpace”ofenergyefficiency

upgradeswas“tooslow”

andthat,althoughtherateofinstallationsofheatpumpshasincreased,itremained“verylow”.

HouseofCommonsSelectCommitteehavehighlightedtheinstallationandrunning

costsofheatpumpsusuallyexceededthoseofgasboilers

andthat

fundingforretrofittinghomeswas“piecemeal”.

Theyhavealsohighlightedalackofawarenessofheatpumps.

Decarbonisingnewhomes

TheUKGovernmentandthedevolvedadministrationsupdatedrequirementsfornewhomesin2021/22.Theyalsoplantofurtherupdaterequirementsfornewhomesinthecomingyears:EnglandandWalesin2025,Scotlandin2024andNorthernIrelandin2026or2027.

Forexample,inEngland,

underthe2021uplift,anaveragesemi-detached

homemusthave30%loweremissions

thanacomparablehomebuiltunder

2013standards.TheUKGovernmenthasproposedfurtherchangestotheserequirementsunderthe

FutureHomesStandard

from2025.Itsaidthat,undertheFutureHomesStandard,anaveragesemi-detachedhomewillhave75%loweremissionsthanunder2013standardsandheatpumpswillbecome“theprimaryheatingtechnology”.

InScotland,

asofApril2024,newhomescannothaveoilorgasboilers.

Theymustinsteadhavealow-carbonheatingsystem,suchasaheatpump.Bytheendof2024,the

ScottishGovernmentalsointendstointroducea‘Passivhaus’

standard

.APassivhausbuildingisdesignedtoretainheatfromthesunand

theiroccupants,soitrequiresverylittleadditionalheatingorcooling.

ResponsetotheFutureHomesStandard

AlthoughtheFutureHomesStandardwaswelcomedbyenvironmentalgroupsandbuiltenvironmentprofessionals,theyexpressedconcernthatitdidnotgofarenough.Forexample,the

RoyalInstitutionofBritishArchitects

saiditwas“insufficienttosignificantlyimprovetheperformanceofnewhomes”,andthe

GoodHomesAlliance

saidthattherewouldneedtobe“afurtheriteration[…]toensurenewbuildingsareofahigherspecificationby2028”.

Housingandnetzero

7CommonsLibraryResearchBriefing,8July2024

TheCommonsEnvironmentalAuditCommitteealsoexpressedconcernaboutthe

lackoftargetsforembodiedemissions

(whicharetheemissionsinvolvedinmanufacturingandtransportingthematerialsusedtobuildorrefurbisha

buildingandintheconstructionprocess).TheCCChasrecommendedthat

the

whole-lifecarbonimpactofnewhomesshouldbereduced.

Housingandnetzero

8CommonsLibraryResearchBriefing,8July2024

1Targetsfordecarbonisinghomes

ThisbriefingfocusesonthetargetsandpoliciesoftheUKGovernmentandthedevolvedadministrationstoreduceemissionsfromexistingandnewhomes.Itdoesnotcovereffortstomakehomesmoreresilienttotheimpactsofclimatechange(forexample,tooverheating)andtoreducewaterusefromhomes.

1UKnetzerotargets

TheUKGovernmenthassetalegallybindingtargettoreducegreenhousegas

emissionsby100%comparedto1990levelsby2050.

1

Thisisreferredtoasthe‘netzerotarget’.Thedevolvedadministrationshavealsosetlegallybindingtargetstoreducetheirgreenhousegasemissionstonetzerocomparedwith1990levels:WalesandNorthernIrelandby2050,

2

andScotlandby2045.

3

ForfurtherinformationabouttheUKnetzerotargets,seetheLibrarybriefingon

theUK’splansandprogresstoreachnetzeroby2050.

1.1Whydohomesneedtobedecarbonised?

AreportbytheClimateChangeCommittee(CCC),thegovernment’sadvisorybodyonclimatechange,saidtheUK“willnotmeetourtargetsforemissionsreductionwithoutnearcompletedecarbonisationofthehousingstock”.

4

Decarbonisationistheprocessofreducingcarbonemissionsfromasystem.

In2022,domesticpropertiesaccountedforaquarter(26%)ofenergyuseintheUK,andemissionsfromresidentialbuildingsaccountedforafifth(20%)ofgreenhousegasemissionsintheUK.

5

1

ClimateChangeAct2008;TheClimateChangeAct2008(2050TargetAmendment)Order2019

2WelshGovernment,

Climatechangetargetsandcarbonbudgets,

lastupdatedNovember2022;

ClimateChangeAct(NorthernIreland)2022

3

ClimateChange(Scotland)Act2009,

asamendedbythe

ClimateChange(EmissionsReduction

Targets)(Scotland)Act2019;

ScottishGovernment,

Reducinggreenhousegasemissions,

undated

4ClimateChangeCommittee(CCC),

UKhousing:Fitforthefuture?,

February2019

5DepartmentforEnergySecurityandNetZero(DESNZ)

,EnergyconsumptionintheUK2023:

ECUK

2023:Consumptiondatatables(Excel):

TableC5,lastupdated15December2023[accessed24May2024];DESNZ,

FinalUKgreenhousegasemissionsnationalstatistics:1990to2022:

Annex1,last

updated28March2024[accessed24May2024]

Housingandnetzero

9CommonsLibraryResearchBriefing,8July2024

Emissionsfromresidentialbuildingscomemainlyfromfossilfuelcombustion(thatis,theburningofoilorgasforheatingandhotwater)andelectricity

use.Inits

2022progressreporttoParliament,

theCCCsaid“heataccountsforthelargestsingleshareofemissionsfrombuildings”.

6

Homeheatingcanbedecarbonisedbyinstallinglow-carbonheating(suchasheatpumps).Emissionsfromhomescanalsobereducedbyimprovingtheirenergyefficiency(forexample,byinstallinginsulationorensuringappliancesareenergyefficient)andinstallingrenewableenergysystems(suchassolarpanels).

7

TheEnvironmentalAuditCommitteesaidthat“energyefficiencyisanimportantprecursortolowcarbonheating”.

8

2Differingviewsona‘fabricfirst’approach

Someorganisations,suchastheNationalInsulationAssociation,havecalledfora‘fabricfirst’approach.Abuilding’sfabricincludesitsstructuralelements(forexample,itsexternalwalls,roofandfloors)anditsdoorsandwindows.A‘fabricfirst’approachinvolvesreducingheatlossthroughfabricelements(forexample,byfittinginsulation)beforeinstallingrenewableenergysystemsandlow-carbonheatingtechnologies(suchasheatpumps).

9

TheRoyalInstituteofBritishArchitects(RIBA)hasalsoarguedthat“weshouldnotrelyonlowcarbonheatingtechnologyalonetodecarbonise”newhomes.Itsaidthatthegovernmentshouldraisestandardsforthefabricefficiencyofnewhomes“asapriority”.

10

Otherorganisations,suchasthecharityNesta,havearguedthat“itisnot

costeffectivetoinsulateeveryhometoahighstandard”.Nestahasarguedthathouseholdsshouldbeencouragedtofitheatpumpseven“iftheirhomeispoorlyinsulated”.

11

ResearchersfromtheUniversityofOxfordhavealsosaidthat“formanyhomesthesolutionwillbetoputinaheatpumpfirst”.

12

HowareUKhomesheated?

TheOfficeforNationalStatistics(ONS)collecteddataonthetypesofcentralheatingusedinhomesin

EnglandandWalesaspartofthe2021census.

The

6CCC,

2022ProgressReporttoParliament,

June2022

7CCC,

UKhousing:Fitforthefuture?,

February2019

8EnvironmentalAuditCommittee(EAC),

Energyefficiencyofexistinghomes

(PDF),HC3462019-21,March2021

9NationalInsulationAssociation,

CallforEvidence:Decarbonisinghomeheating-National

InsulationAssociationresponse,

April2024

10RoyalInstituteofBritishArchitects

,TheproposedFutureHomesandBuildingsStandards–A

positivesteporlackinginambition?,

March2024

11Nesta,

Insulationimpact:HowmuchdoUKhousesreallyneed?,

January2024

12UniversityofOxfordEnvironmentalChangeInstitute,

Thinkfirstbeforefabricfirst,

January2024;NickEyreandothers,

Fabricfirst:Isitstilltherightapproach?,

Building&Cities,Vol4(1),2023

10CommonsLibraryResearchBriefing,8July2024

censusdatashowedthatthreequarters(74%)ofhouseholdsinEnglandandWalesusedgasastheironlysourceofheating.3%ofhouseholdsusedoilastheironlysourceofheating.

Only9%ofhouseholdsinEnglandandWalessaidtheyusedelectricheating(suchasstorageheaters)astheironlysourceofheating.Homesthatonly

usedelectricheatingweremainlylocatedinmajorcitiessuchasManchester,BirminghamandLondon.Lessthan1%ofhouseholdsusedrenewableenergysources(suchasgeothermalheating,aheatpumporsolarheating)ontheirownorwithothersourceofheating.Similarly,lessthan1%ofhouseholds

saidtheywereonheatnetworks.

13

Similarly,the2021ScottishHouseConditionSurveyfoundthat80%ofhomesinScotland(around2million)usemainsgasforheatingand6%usedoil.11%ofhouseholdsinScotlandusedelectricitytoheattheirhomesin2021.

14

Incontrast,mosthomesinNorthernIrelandarenotconnectedtothegasgrid.The2021censusshowedthat33%ofhouseholdsinNorthernIrelandusedgastoheattheirhomes,while63%usedoiltoheattheirhomes.

15

3Low-carbonheatingtechnologies

Thegovernmentsaidthatheatpumpsandheatnetworkswillbethemainlow-carbontechnologiesfordecarbonisinghomeheating:

?Heatpumpsuseelectricitytoextractheatfromtheair,groundornearbywatersourcesandtransferitintoabuilding.Becauseheatpumpsusuallytransferratherthangenerateheat,theyaremoreenergyefficientthanconventionalheatingtechnologies,suchasboilers.

-Air-sourceheatpumpsaremorecommonlyusedinhomesintheUKbecausetheyaresmaller,cheaperandeasiertoinstallthanground-sourceheatpumps.

16

?Heatnetworksdistributeheatingandhotwaterfromacentralsourcetoblocksofflats(communalheatnetwork)ortoawholeneighbourhoodofbuildings(districtheatnetwork)throughanetworkofpipes.Theyareamoreefficientwayofdeliveringheatbecausetheyuselarge-scaleheatgeneration,andtheycanusewastesourcesofheat(forexample,frompowerstationsordatacentres).

17

13OfficeforNationalStatistics

,Census2021:howhomesareheatedinyourarea,

5January2023;ONS,

Census2021:Centralheating,

lastupdated28March2023[accessed24May2024]

14ScottishGovernment,

ScottishHouseConditionSurvey:2021KeyFindings,

May2023

15NorthernIrelandStatisticsandResearchAgency,

Census2021:Householdspacesand

accommodation

(PDF),15December2022[accessed24May2024],p22

16EnergySavingTrust,

In-depthguidetoheatpumps,

March2024;InternationalEnergyAgency,

How

aheatpumpworks,

November2022

17DESNZandBEIS,

Whatisaheatnetwork?,

March2018;NationalAuditOffice,

Decarbonisinghome

heating,

March2024

Hydrogenboilersareanotherlow-carbonheatingmethod.Hydrogenboilersusehydrogengasratherthannaturalgasasfuel.Unlikenaturalgas,

hydrogendoesnotreleasecarbondioxidewhenburned.Thegovernmentsaiditwoulddecideontheroleofhydrogenby2026.

18

Forfurtherinformation,seeabriefingbytheParliamentaryOfficeforScienceandTechnology(POST)on

Low-carbonhydrogensupply

(June2021).

HowenergyefficientareUKhomes?

DataontheenergyefficiencyofhomesinEnglandiscollectedaspartofthe

EnglishHousingSurvey,

anannualsurveyadministeredbytheDepartmentforLevellingUp,HousingandCommunities.ItprovidesestimatesoftheconditionofthehousingstockinEngland.Themostrecentdatawascollectedin2021.

TheEnglishHousingSurveyusesthestandardassessmentprocedure(SAP)tomonitortheenergyefficiencyofhomes.Itratestheenergyefficiencyofhomesonascaleof1to100,whichisthensplitintobands(AtoG).Thisratingisalsodisplayedonenergyperformancecertificates(EPCs).ForfurtherinformationabouttheSAPandEPCs,seesection2ofthisbriefing.

EnergyefficiencyratingofhomesinEngland

100%

BandC

BandsAandB

80%

BandD

60%

40%

BandE

20%

BandG

BandF

0%

2008201020122014201620182020

Source:DepartmentforLevellingUp,HousingandCommunities(DLUHC)andMinistryforHousing,CommunitiesandLocalGovernment(MHCLG)

,EnglishHousingSurveydataonenergyperformance:

Table

DA7101:energyperformance-dwellings

(ODSfile,opensinExcel),lastupdated13July2023

In2021,theaverageenergyefficiencyofhomesinEnglandwas66(onthe1to

100scale)and48%ofhomeswereinEPCbandCorabove.Incomparison,in

18DESNZandBEIS,

Heatandbuildingsstrategy,

lastupdatedMarch2023;NAO,

Decarbonisinghome

heating,

March2024

11CommonsLibraryResearchBriefing,8July2024

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12CommonsLibraryResearchBriefing,8July2024

2008,theaverageenergyefficiencyofhomesinEnglandwas51and10%ofhomeswereinEPCbandCorabove.

19

Asshowninthechartabove,theincreaseinthenumberofhomesinEPCbandCoraboveinthepastdecadehasbeendrivenbytheincreaseinthenumberofhomesinbandC.Only3%ofhomesin2021wereinbandAorB(comparedwithlessthan1%in2008).

Devolvedadministrations

SimilardataontheenergyefficiencyofhomesisalsoavailableforWales(latestdatafrom2017/18),Scotland(latestdatafrom2021)andNorthernIreland(latestdatafrom2016):

?InWales,theaverageenergyefficiencyratingofhomeswas61in2017/18,and28%ofhomeswereinEPCbandCorabove.

20

?InScotland,theaverageenergyefficiencyratingofhomeswas68in2021,and52%ofhomeswereinEPCbandCorabove.

21

?InNorthernIreland,theaverageenergyefficiencyratingofhomeswas

66in2016,and49%ofhomeswereinEPCbandCorabove.

22

ForfurtherinformationonhowratingsvaryacrosstheUK,seetheLibrarybriefing,

EnergyefficiencyofUKhomes

(February2024).

1.2HeatandBuildingsStrategy(October2021)

InOctober2021,thegovernmentpublishedthe

HeatandBuildingsStrategy,

whichsetsoutitspoliciesfordecarbonisinghomes.TheHeatandBuildings

Strategywaspublishedalongsidethe

NetZeroStrategy:BuildBackGreener,

whichsetsoutpoliciestodecarboniseallsectorsoftheUKeconomy.

TheHeatandBuildingsStrategybuiltuponpreviousstrategiesincluding:

?

Thecleangrowthstrategy

(October2017)

?

Theten-pointplanforagreenindustrialrevolution

(November2020)

19DepartmentforLevellingUp,HousingandCommunities(DLUHC)andMinistryforHousing,

CommunitiesandLocalGovernment(MHCLG),

EnglishHousingSurveydataonenergyperformance:

Table

DA7101:energyperformance-dwellings

(ODSfile,opensinExcel),lastupdated13July2023[accessed24May2024]

20WelshGovernment,

WelshHousingConditionsSurvey:Resultsviewer,

lastupdated31October2019[accessed24May2024]

21ScottishGovernment,

ScottishHouseConditionSurvey:2021KeyFindings,

published30May2023[accessed24May2024]

22NorthernIrelandHousingExecutive,

NorthernIrelandHouseConditionSurvey2016:MainReport

(Table7.2),2016[accessed24May2024]

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13CommonsLibraryResearchBriefing,8July2024

?

Energywhitepaper:Poweringournetzerofuture

(December2020)

SincepublishingtheHeatandBuildingsStrategyin2021,thegovernmenthaspublishedthe

PoweringupBritain

policypaper(March2023).InPoweringupBritain,thegovernmentsetoutthestepsitintendstotaketoimprovetheUK’senergysecurityandhowitintendstoachieveitsnetzerocommitments.

23

IntheHeatandBuildingsStrategy,thegovernmentsaid,tomeetitsnetzerotarget,“almostallbuildings[willneed]tofullydecarbonise”.Tothisend,itsaiditwould:

?Lowerthecostofheatpumpsbetween25%and50%by2025anddeployatleast600,000heatpumpsystemsayearby2028.

?Phaseouttheinstallati