新編簡(jiǎn)明英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程筆記

生命是永恒不斷的創(chuàng)建，因?yàn)樵谒鼉?nèi)部蘊(yùn)含著過(guò)剩的精力，它不斷流溢，越出時(shí)

間和空間的界限，它不停地追求，以形形色色的自我表現(xiàn)的形式表現(xiàn)出來(lái)。

---泰戈?duì)?/p>

ChapteroneIntroduction

一、定義

1.語(yǔ)言學(xué)Linguistics

Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.

2.一般語(yǔ)言學(xué)GeneralLinguistics

ThestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledGenerallinguistics.

3語(yǔ)言language

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

語(yǔ)言是人類用來(lái)交際的隨意性的有聲符號(hào)體系。

4.識(shí)別特征DesignFeatures

Itreferstothedefiningpopertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemof

communication.

語(yǔ)言識(shí)別特征是指人類語(yǔ)言區(qū)分與其他任何動(dòng)物的交際體系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness隨意性

Productivity多產(chǎn)性

Duality雙重性

Displacement移位性

Culturaltransmission文化傳遞

(Darbitrariness

Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.

P.Sthearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophisticationanditmakesitpossiblefor

languagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions

⑵Productivity

Animalsarequitelimitedinthemessagestheyareabletosend.

⑶Duality

Languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.

(4)Displacement

Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.

(5)Culturaltransmission

Humancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,butwehavetobetaughtandlearnedthedetails

ofanylanguagesystem,thisshowedthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted,notbyinstinct,

animalsarebornwiththecapacitytoproducethesetofcallspeculiartotheirspecies.

5.語(yǔ)言實(shí)力Competence

Competenceistheidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.

6.語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用performance

Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.

語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用是所駕馭的規(guī)則在語(yǔ)言交際中的體現(xiàn)。

7.歷時(shí)語(yǔ)言學(xué)Diachroniclinguistics

Thestudyoflanguagechangethroughtime,adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy,

whichstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.

8.共時(shí)語(yǔ)言學(xué)Synchronicallinguistics

Thestudyofagivenlanguageatagiventime.

9.語(yǔ)言langue

Theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofaspeechcommunity.

10.言語(yǔ)parole

Therealizationoflangueinactualuse.

11.規(guī)定性Prescriptive

Itaimstolaydownrulesfor“correct”behavior,totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhat

shouldnotsay.

12.描述性Descriptive

Alinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.

二、學(xué)問(wèn)點(diǎn)

1.languageisnotanisolatedphenomenon,it'sasocialactivitycarriedoutinacertainsocial

environmentbyhumanbeings.

語(yǔ)言不是一種孤立的現(xiàn)象，而是人類在確定的社會(huì)環(huán)境下進(jìn)行的一種社會(huì)活動(dòng)。

2.幾種觀點(diǎn)和現(xiàn)象的提出者：

⑴瑞士語(yǔ)言學(xué)家F.deSaussureEdeSaussure:Langue和parole的區(qū)分

⑵U.S.AlinguistN.Chomsky美國(guó)語(yǔ)言學(xué)家N.Chomsky

in1950針對(duì)Saussure?slangue&parole提出Competence和performance

⑶曾經(jīng)對(duì)語(yǔ)言概念下過(guò)定義的語(yǔ)言學(xué)家

Sapir---languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicationideas,emotions

anddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.

Hall——languageistheinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherby

meansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.

Chomsky--fromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthand

constructedoutofafinitesetofelements.

(4)U.S.ALinguistCharlesHockett美國(guó)語(yǔ)言學(xué)家CharlesHockett

提出了語(yǔ)言的識(shí)別特征designfeatures

3.theword9language9precededbythezero-article,itimpliesthatlinguisticsstudiesnotany

particularlanguage.

Language一詞前不加冠詞說(shuō)明語(yǔ)言學(xué)家不只探討一種特定的語(yǔ)言。

4.inordertodiscoverthenatureoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem,whatthelinguistshastodo

firstiftostudylanguagefacts.

5.languageisacomplicatedentitywithmultiplelayersandfacts,soit'shardlypossibleforthe

linguisticstodealwithitallatonce.推斷題

6.Fristdrewtheattentionofthelinguistswerethesoundsusedinlanguages.最先弓|起語(yǔ)言學(xué)家留

意的是語(yǔ)言的發(fā)音。

三、問(wèn)答題

l.whataremajorbranchesoflinguistics?whatdoeseachstudy?

Phonetics----it'sdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage,it'sconcernedwithallthe

soundsthatoccurintheworld'slanguages.

Phonology-thestudyofsoundssystems—theinventoryofdistinctivesoundsthatoccurina

languageandthepatternsintowhichtheyfall.

Morphology--It'sabranchofagrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandthe

rulesbywhichwordsareformed.

Syntax-------it*sasubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudiesthesentencestructureofalanguage.

Semantics-It'ssimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginabstraction.

Pragmaticsthestudyofmeaningincontextofwords.

Sociolinguistics-thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety.

Psycholinguistics---thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofthemind.

Appliedlinguistics---theapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingand

learning.

2.whydowesaylanguageisarbitrary?

Languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenthesoundsthat

peopleuseandtheobjectstowhichthesesoundsrefer.

Thefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferentwordsforthesameobjectisagoodillustrationof

thearbitrarynatureoflanguage,it'sonlyourtacitagreementofutteranceandconceptatworkand

notanyinnaterelationshipboundupintheutterance.

Atypicalexampletoillustratethe'arbitrariness'oflanguageis'arosebyanyothernamewould

smellassweet'.

3.whatmakesmodemlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?

Modernlinguisticsisdescriptive,itsinvestigationsarebasedonauthenticandmainlyspoken

languagedate.現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)是描述性的，其探討以的確牢靠的、主要以口語(yǔ)形式的資料為基礎(chǔ)。

traditionalgrammarisprescriptive,itisbasedon,high'writtenlanguage.

傳統(tǒng)語(yǔ)法是規(guī)定性的，探討‘高級(jí)'書面語(yǔ)。

4.1smodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?why

Modernlinguisticsismainlysynchronic,focusingonthepresent-daylanguage,unlessthevarious

statesofalanguagearesuccessfullystudied,itwillnotbepossibletodescribelanguagefroma

diachronicpointofview.

現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)主要是共時(shí)性的，重點(diǎn)探討現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言。除非對(duì)語(yǔ)言的各種狀態(tài)都進(jìn)行成功的探討，

否則很難從歷時(shí)性角度對(duì)語(yǔ)言進(jìn)行描述。

5.whichenjoyspriorityinmodernlinguistics,speechorwritings?

Speechenjoysforthefollowingreasons:

(DSpeechprecedeswritingintermsofevolution.

(2)Alargeamountofcommunicationiscarriedoutinspeechthaninwriting.

(3)speechistheforminwhichinfantsacquiretheirnativelanguage.

6.howisSaussure5sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky's?

BothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandthe

actualuseoflanguage,theirpurposeistosingleoutthelanguagesystemforseriousstudy

TwolinguistsideadifferinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguage,Chomskylooksat

languagefromapsychologicalpointofview,competenceisapropertyofthemindofeach

individual.

6.thedistinctionbetweenlangueandparole?

(Dlangueisabstract,relativelystable(2)paroleisconcrete,variesfrompersontoperson,from

situationtosituation.

1/Whatislinguistics?

什么是語(yǔ)言學(xué)？

Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticular

language,butlanguagesingeneral.

2/Thescopeoflinguistics

語(yǔ)言學(xué)的探討范疇

Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.（一般語(yǔ)言學(xué)）

Thestudyofsounds,whichareusedinlinguisticcommunication,iscalledphonetics.（語(yǔ)音學(xué)）

Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.（音系

學(xué)）

Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsarecalledmorphology.

（形態(tài)學(xué)）

Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax（句法

學(xué)）

Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.（語(yǔ)義學(xué)）

Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.（語(yǔ)用學(xué)）

Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsocio-linguistics.（社會(huì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)）

Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofmindiscalledpsycho-linguistics.（心理

語(yǔ)言學(xué)）

Thestudyofapplications（astherecoveryofspeechability）isgenerallyknownasapplied

linguistics.（應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)）Butinanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationof

linguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingof

foreignandsecondlanguage.

Otherrelatedbranchesincludeanthropologicallinguistics,（人類語(yǔ)言學(xué)）neurological

linguistics,（神經(jīng)語(yǔ)言學(xué)）mathematicallinguistics,（數(shù)字語(yǔ)言學(xué)）andcomputational

linguistics.（計(jì)算機(jī)語(yǔ)言學(xué)）

3/Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics

語(yǔ)言學(xué)探討中的幾對(duì)基本概念

Prescriptiveanddescriptive規(guī)定與描寫

Ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobe

descriptive,ifitaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshould

notsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.

Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammar.Traditionalgrammarisprescriptivewhile

modernlinguisticsisdescriptive.Thetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeople

actuallyuse,whetheritis“correct“ornot.

Synchronicanddiachronic共時(shí)和歷時(shí)

Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofa

languageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudy

ismoreimportant.

Speechandwriting口頭語(yǔ)與書面語(yǔ)

Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthe

spokenformoflanguageasprimary,butnotthewrittenform.Reasonsare:1.Speechprecedes

writing;2.Therearestillmanylanguagesthathaveonlythespokenform;3.Intermsoffunction,

thespokenlanguageisusedforawiderrangeofpurposesthanthewritten,andcarriesalarger

loadofcommunicationthanthewritten.

Langueandparole語(yǔ)言和言語(yǔ)

TheSwisslinguistF.deSaussuremadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleearly20th

century.

Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,

andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuremadethedistinctioninorder

tosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoisto

abstractlanguefromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageand

makethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.

Competenceandperformance語(yǔ)言實(shí)力和語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用

ProposedbyAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950,s.

Hedefinescompetenceastheidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,and

performancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Hebelievesthe

taskofthelinguistsistodiscoverandspecifythelanguagerules.

ChapterTwoPhonology

一、定義

1.寬式音標(biāo)Broadtranscription

Thetranscriptionofspeechsoundswithlettersymbolsonly.

2.窄式音標(biāo)Narrowtranscription

Thetranscriptionofspeechsoundwithletterssymbolsandthediacritics.

3.清音Voiceless

WhenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapartJettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,the

soundsproducedinsuchaconditionarecalledvoicelesssounds.

4.濁音Voicing

Soundsproducedwhilethevocalcordsarevibratingarecalledvoicedsounds.

5.元音Vowel

Thesoundsintheproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheairstream

passesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstructionarecalledvowels.

6.輔音Consonants

Thesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthe

vocaltractarecalledconsonants.

7.音位Phoneme

Thebasicunitinphonology,ifsacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.

8.音位變體Allophones

Differentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentenvironmentsarecalledthe

allophonesofthatphoneme.

9.音素phone

Aphoneticunitorsegment.itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,it'saspeechsoundweuse

whenspeakingalanguage.

10.最小對(duì)立對(duì)Minimalpair

Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccurs

inthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.

11.超切分特征Suprasegmental

Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentarecalledsuprasegmental

features,themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestressintonationandtone.

12.互補(bǔ)分布complementarydistributionP35

Twoallophonesofthesamephonemearesaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.

13.語(yǔ)言的語(yǔ)音媒介Phonicmediumoflanguage

Thelimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandareofinterest

tolinguisticstudiesarethephonicmediumoflanguage.

在人類交際中有著確定意義、對(duì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)探討來(lái)說(shuō)舉足輕重。有限的聲音是語(yǔ)音媒介。

14.爆破音stops

Whenaobstructioncreatedbythespeechorgansistotalorcomplete,thespeechsoundproduced

withtheobstructionreleasedandtheairpassingoutagainiscalledastoporaplosive.

theyare[b][p][t][d][k][g]

二、學(xué)問(wèn)點(diǎn)

1.statisticsresultingfromcarefulinvestigationsshowthattherehavebeenover5,0001anguagesin

theworld,abouttwothirdsofwhichhavenothadwrittenform.

2.ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwriting.

3.Phonetic組成

(DArticuIaloryphonetics發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué)longestestablished,mostlydeveloped

(2)Auditoryphonetics聽(tīng)覺(jué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)

(3)Acousticphonetics聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)

4.articulatoryApparatus/OrgansofSpeech

Pharyngealcavity-咽腔

Oral...-口腔greatestsourceofmodificationofairstreamfoundhere

Nasal???-鼻腔

5.Thetongueisthemostflexible,responsibleformorevarietiesofarticulationthananyother,the

extremebackofthetonguecanberaisedtowardstheuvulaandaspeechsoundcanbethus

producedasisusedinArabicandFrench.

6.Obstructionbetweenthebackofthetongueandthevelararearesultsinthepronunciationof[k]

and[g],thenarrowingofspacebetweenthehardpalateandthefrontofthelongueleadstothe

sound|j];theobstructioncreatedbetweenthetipofthetongueandthealveolarridgeresultsinthe

sounds[t]and[d].

7.nasalconsonants:[m]/[n]/[r]]

9.APhoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.

lO.Sequentialrules例子

Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshould

obeythefollowingthreerules:

(Dthefirstphonememustbe/s/

(2)thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/

(3)thethirdphonememustbe/I/or/r/or/w

11.Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:Fallingtone;Risingtone;Fall-risetone;Rise-falltone

三、問(wèn)答題

l.whatarethethreebranchesofphonetics?howdotheycontributetothestudyofspeechsound?

Articulatory-describesthewayourspeechorgansworktoproducethespeechsoundsandhow

theydiffer.

Auditory—studiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,reachestheimportantconclusionthat

phoneticidentityisonlyatheoreticalideal.

Acoustic—studiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,thewaysoundtravelfromthespeaker

tothehearer.

發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué)描述了我們的發(fā)音器官如何發(fā)出語(yǔ)音，以及這些語(yǔ)音為何有所不同。

聽(tīng)覺(jué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)探討語(yǔ)音的物理性質(zhì)，得出了重要結(jié)論，即語(yǔ)音同一只是理論上的志向。

聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)探討語(yǔ)音的物理性質(zhì)，探討語(yǔ)音從說(shuō)話者到聽(tīng)話者之間的傳播方式。

2.howaretheEnglishconsonantsclassified?

ByplaceofarticulationandBymannerofarticulation

3.howdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudy?whodoyouthinkwillbemore

interestedinthedifferentbetweensay[i]and[i],[p]and[ph],aphoneticianoraphilologist?why?

語(yǔ)音學(xué)和音位學(xué)的探討中心有何不同?語(yǔ)音學(xué)家和音位學(xué)家哪一個(gè)更關(guān)切清晰音的區(qū)分?為

什么？

Phonetics-descriptionofallspeechsoundsandtheirfinddifferences.

Phonology-descriptionofsoundsystemsofparticularlanguagesandhowsoundsfunctionto

distinguishmeaning.

Aphoneticianwouldbemoreinterestedinsuchdifferencescossuchdifferenceswillnotcos

differencesinmeaning.

4.whafsaphone?howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?howareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme?

Phone—aspeechsound,aphoneticunit.

Phoneme---acollectionofabstractsoundfeatures,aphonologicalunit.

Allophones-actualrealizationofaphonemeindifferentphoneticcontexts.

5.whatisaminimalpairandaminimalset?whyisitimportanttoidentifytheminimalsetina

language?為什么區(qū)分最小對(duì)立組在一種語(yǔ)言中特殊重要？

Minimalpair-twosoundcombinationsidenticalineverywayexceptinonesoundelementthat

occursinthesameposition.

除了出現(xiàn)在同一位置的一個(gè)語(yǔ)音成分不同外,其他部分都一樣的兩個(gè)語(yǔ)音組合.

Minimalset—agroupofsoundcombinationswiththeabovefeature.

一組具有上述特征的語(yǔ)音組合.

Byidentifyingtheminimalpairortheminimalsetofalanguage,aphilologistcanidentifyits

phonemes.

通過(guò)分析一種語(yǔ)言的最小對(duì)立對(duì)或最小對(duì)立組，音位學(xué)家能辨別出它的音位.

6.Explainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowonetranscriptiondiffer?

Broadtranscription-onelettersymbolforonesound.

Narrowtranscription-diacriticsareaddedtotheone-lettersymbolstoshowthefiner

differencesbetweensounds.

7.explainthesequentialrule,theassimilationruleandthedeletionrule.

有序規(guī)則Sequentialrules

Rulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.

同化規(guī)則Assimilationrules

Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby'copying'afeatureofasequential

phoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.

省略規(guī)則Deletionrule

It'saphonologicalrulewhichtellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitsorthographically

represented.

ChapterThreeMorphology

一、定義

1.詞素Morpheme

Thebasicunitinthestudyofmorphologyandthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.

2.自由詞素FreeMorpheme

Freemorphemesareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves.

3.黏著詞素Boundmorphemes

Boundmorphemesarethesemorphemesthatcanotbeusedbythemselves,mustbecombined

withothermorphemestoformwordsthatcanbeusedindependently.

4.詞根Root

Rootisthebaseformofawordwhichcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.

5.詞綴Affix

Thecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanother

morpheme.

6.曲折詞綴inflectionalaffixes

Themanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,such

asnumber,tense,degreeandcase.

7.沙氏生詞綴Derivationalaffixes

Themanifestationofrelationbetweenstemsandaffixesthroughtheadditionofderivational

affixes.

8.詞干Stem

Astemistheexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeadded,astemcanbeabound

root,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.

9.形態(tài)學(xué)規(guī)則Morphologicalrules

Theyarerulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypeofstemtoformanewword.

10.前綴Prefix

Prefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,bulusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechofthe

originalword,exceptionsaretheprefixes'be-'and'en(m)-6

11.后綴Suffix

Suffixesareaddedtotheendofstems,theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandin

manycaseschangeitspartofspeech.3.Inusingthemorphologicalrules,wemustguardagainst

Over-generalization.

二、學(xué)問(wèn)點(diǎn)

Inflectionalmorphology

1.Morphology

Derivationalmorphology

Freemoiphemes

MorphemesRoot

BoundmorphemesInflectionalaffixes

Affixes

Prefix

Derivationalaffixes

2.somewordsmaybesaidtocontainarootmorpheme.Suffix

4.Compoundfeatures:

(1)orthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasoneword,twoseparatewordswithorwithouta

hypheninbetween.

(2)Syntactically,thepartofspeechofacompoundisdeterminedbythelastelement.

(3)semantically,themeaningofacompoundisidiomatic,notcalculablefromthemeaningsofall

itscomponent

ChapterFourSyntax

一、定義

1.句子sentence

Astructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacomplete

statement,questionorcommand.

2.語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用Linguisticcompetence

Thesystemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeaker.

3.謂語(yǔ)Predicate

Thepartofasentencewhichcomprisesafiniteverboraverbphraseandwhichsayssomething

aboutthesubjectisgrammaticallycalledpredicate.

4.定式子句FiniteClause

Aclausethattakesasubjectandafiniteverb,andatthesametimestandsstructurallyalone.

5.從屬子句EmbeddedClause(EC)

Inacompletesentence,theincorporatedorsubordinateclauseisnormallycalledanEC.

6.主要子句MatrixClause

Inacomplexedsentence,theclauseintowhichitisembeddediscalledamatrixclause.

7層次結(jié)構(gòu)Hierarchicalstructure

Thesentencestructurethatgroupswordsintostructuralconstituentsandshowsthesyntactic

categoriesofeachstructuralconstituent,suchasNPandVP.

8.語(yǔ)法關(guān)系Grammaticalrelations

Thestructuralandlogicalfunctionalrelationsbetweeneverynounphraseandsentence.

9.句法類型Syntacticcategory

Awordorphrasethatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunctionsuchasthesubjectorobject.

10.表層結(jié)構(gòu)S-structure

Alevelofsyntacticrepresentationaftertheoperationofnecessarysyntacticmovement.

11.深層結(jié)構(gòu)D-structure

Alevelofsyntacticrepresentationbeforetheoperationofnecessarysyntacticmovement.

12.普遍語(yǔ)法Generalgrammar

Asystemoflinguisticknowledgewhichconsistsofsomegeneralprinciplesandparametersabout

naturelanguage.

13.移動(dòng)Q規(guī)則Movea

Ageneralmovementruleaccountingforthesyntacticbehaviorofanyconstituentmovement.

14.句法移位Syntacticmovement

Syntacticmovementoccurswhenaconstituentmovesoutofitsoriginalplacetoanewposition.

15.轉(zhuǎn)換原則Transformationrules

Syntacticmovementisdictatedbyrulestraditionallycalledtransformationalrules,whose

operationmaychangethesyntacticrepresentationofasentence.

16.X標(biāo)桿理論X-bartheory

Ageneralandhighlyabstractschemathatcollapsesallphrasesstructurerulesintoasingle

format:X"-*(Spec)X(CompI).

一種泛指的、高度抽象的圖示，它把全部的詞組結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則概括為一種程式

X”f(Spec)X(Compl)

a:X"b:X"SpecX5

SpecX'X'Xcompl

Xcomplement

NP'thestudentwholikeslinguisticsJconsistsofDet,NandSwithDetbeingtheSpecifier,N

thehead,Sthecomplement.NP(…)有冠詞、名詞和子句組成，冠詞是指示語(yǔ)，名詞是核心詞，

子句是補(bǔ)足語(yǔ)。

二、學(xué)問(wèn)點(diǎn)

1.syntax這個(gè)單詞源于Greek,本義是arrangement.

2.我們把syntax的學(xué)習(xí)看作asystemofrulesthatgoverntheformationofgrammatical

sentence.

3.Amajorgoaloflinguisticsistoshowwithaconsistentandexplicitgrammaticaltheoryhow

syntacticrulesaccountforthisgrammaticalknowledge.

4.推斷題：thesyntacticrulesofanylanguagearefiniteinnumber,andyetthereisnolimittothe

numberofsentencesnativespeakersofthatlanguageareabletoproduceandcomprehend.

5.推斷題:Afiniteverb,informallycalledthemainverbofasentence,expressesexistence,action

oroccurrencewhichislimitedbyperson,number,tenseandmood.

一個(gè)限定動(dòng)詞被非正式稱為句中主要?jiǎng)釉~，表達(dá)了人稱、數(shù)、時(shí)態(tài)、語(yǔ)氣限定的存在、行動(dòng)

或事務(wù)。

6.句子的分類simplesentence

Typesofsentencescoordinateorcompoundsentence

Complexsentence

簡(jiǎn)潔句一Itconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneas

itsownsentence.

并歹！J句合成句-Itcontainstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunction,

suchas"but","and”.ect.

復(fù)合句一Itcontainstwoormoreclauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.

復(fù)合句的特點(diǎn)：

(DAnembeddedclausefunctionsasagrammaticalunitinitsmatrixclause

(2)MostembeddedclausesrequireanintroductorywordcalledaSubordinator,suchas“that”

(3)Anembeddedclausemaynotfunctionasagrammaticallywell-formedsentenceifitstands

independentlyasasimplesentenceunlessitsformchanges.

子句是一個(gè)語(yǔ)法單位，大部分子句要帶一個(gè)被稱為從屬連詞的引導(dǎo)詞，假如子句作為秒年

第秒年句單獨(dú)存在，它可能不是一個(gè)合乎規(guī)范的句子，除非變更他的形式。

7.whenasentenceisutteredorwrittendown,thewordsofthesentenceareproducedoneafter

anotherinasequence.

8.Thehierarchicalnatureofsentencestructure句子結(jié)構(gòu)層次特點(diǎn)

sentencesareorganizedwithwordsofthesamesyntacticcategory,suchasnounphraseNPor

verbphraseVP,groupedtogether.

9.ThepointsatwhichthetreebrachesatvariouslevelsarecalledBranchingnodes分叉點(diǎn)

lO.Inadditiontotheuseofstructuraltreediagrams,linguistsmayshowthehierarchicalstructure

ofsentencesbyusingbracketsandsubscriptlabels.

11.句法類型

Major…主要詞類open,canaddnewwords

Lexicalcategory名、動(dòng)、形、副詞N,V,Adj,Adv

SyntacticMinor***次要詞類close,wordsarefixed

Categories限定、助動(dòng)、介、代、連、嘆Del,Aiix,Prep,Pron,Conj,Int

Phrasalcategory

Apartfromsentencesandclauses,asyntacticcategoryusuallyreferstoaword(calledalexical

category)oraphrase(calledphrasalcategory)thatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunction,

suchasthesubjectinasentence.

12.短語(yǔ)類型

NounPhraseNP

PhrasalVerbPhraseVP

CategoriesPrepositionPhrasePP

AdjectivePhraseAP

13.Thegrammaticalrelationsofasentenceconcernthewayeachmounphraseinthesentence

relatestotheverb,inmanycases,grammaticalrelationsrefervirtuallyto'who'

does'what'to'whom'.

14.weusuallyrefertothegrammaticalrelationsassubjectofanddirectobjectof.

15.Combinationalrulesmustbesmallinnumbersoasnottocreateextraburdensonthehuman

memory,alsotheserulesmustbepowerfulenoughtoyieldallthepossiblesentences,andruleout

theimpossibleones

組合規(guī)則確定不能太多，以免給人的記憶帶來(lái)過(guò)多的負(fù)擔(dān)，用這些規(guī)則必需能組合出全部可

能的句子，而解除不行能的句子。

16.rulesangenerateaninfinitenumberofsentences,andsentenceswithinfinitelength,dueto

theirrecursiveproperties.Itcapturestheabilityoflanguagetogeneratemoreconstituentstoa

sentenceandenablesspeakerstorepeatsyntacticconstituentswithinthesamesentence.

循環(huán)性體現(xiàn)了語(yǔ)言中的句子能有更多的成分，使說(shuō)話者能在同一句子中重復(fù)一些句法成分。

17.移位類型

SyntacticNP-movement=t,sinvolvingthemovementofanounphrase.

Movement名詞短語(yǔ)的移位

WH-movement=Itchangesasentencefromaffirmativetointerrogative.

陳述變疑問(wèn)句

AUX-...=themovementofanauxiliaryverbtothesentenceinitialposition.

助動(dòng)詞移位到句首的移位

18.普遍語(yǔ)法的廣義原則

GeneralPrinciplesofUniversalGrammar:CaseCondition和AdjacencyCondition

格條件-anounphrasemusthaveCaseandCaseisassignedbyVorPtotheobjectposition,or

byAUXtothesubjectposition.

名詞詞組必需有格，賓語(yǔ)的格是由動(dòng)詞或介詞確定，而主語(yǔ)的格由助動(dòng)詞確定。

相令B條件——acaseassignorandaCaserecipientshouldstayadjacenttoeachother,itexplainswhy

nootherphrasalcategorycanintervenebetweenaverbanditsdirectobject.

格分派者和格接受者要相鄰。這說(shuō)明白為什么任何別的詞組類不能插到動(dòng)詞和它的干脆賓語(yǔ)

之間。

19.UniversalGrammarisbelievedtocontainaparameterwiththevalves增and減setonthe

Adjacencycondition,withEnglish-typela