大學英語四級閱讀理解的篇章段落組織模式

大學英語四級閱讀理解的篇章段落組織模式林明金尋找文章或段落的主題是閱讀理解中重要的一環(huán)節(jié)，也是四級閱讀理解考查的一個要點。但文章或段落的（supportingsentences/details）所提供的事實、實例或論據(jù)才使文章或段落的主題得到充實和豐富。作者一般會采用一定的模式來組織輔助性的細節(jié)內(nèi)容，故把握好作者對細節(jié)內(nèi)容的組織模式對所閱讀的內(nèi)容的理解和記憶極為有益。下面介紹幾種基本的篇章段落組織模式：（一）列舉法——AdditionorListing（二）過程/程序法——Process（三）類別法——Classification（四）舉例法——Example（五）因果法——CauseandEffect.（六）時間順序法——TimeOrder.（七）比較/對比法——Comparisonand/Contrast.（八）綜合法——ACombinationoftheAbove（一）列舉法：指對文章或段落的主題或某一觀點所提供的細節(jié)，作者按照自己喜好的順序加以排列或羅列。列舉法是一種最常見和最簡單的一種細節(jié)組織模式。例如：[主題句]Waterisessentialforgoodhealth.Itisnecessaryforeveryprocessofthebodylikedigestionandabsorptionoffood.Inaddition,waterhelpscontrolthetemperatureofthebody.Itkeepsthetemperatureat37℃.Wateralsocleansthetissues.此例是一個典型的列舉模式：作者用了三個細節(jié)來說明本段的主題。作者還在此采用了該模式常見的信號詞（inaddition,also）。列舉法一些常用的信號詞還有：and,too,plus,again,besides,moreover,furthermore,first,second，next,inthesameway,similarly,etc.列舉法在四級閱讀測試中也很常見，例如（2000年6月）[主題句]Socialsupportcushionsstressinanumberofways.First,friends,relatives,andco-workersmayletusknowthattheyvalueus.Ourself-respectisstrengthenedwhenwefeelacceptedbyothersdespiteourfaultsanddifficulties.Second,otherpeopleoftenprovideuswithinformationalsupport.Theyhelpustodefineandunderstandourproblemsandfindsolutionstothem.Third,wetypicallyfindsocialcompanionshipsupportive.Engaginginleisure-timeactivitieswithothershelpsustomeetoursocialneedswhileatthesametimedistracting(轉(zhuǎn)移...注意力)usfromourworriesandtroubles.Finally,otherpeoplemaygiveusinstrumentalsupportfinancialaid,materialresources,andneededservices--thatreducesstressbyhelpingusresolveandcopewithourproblems.在主題句之后，作者列舉了四個方面的細節(jié)來論證該主題句。（二）過程/程序法：作者用做事情的一系列步驟的順序來組織細節(jié)，用來說明做某事件的模式，即為過程法。舉例如下：[主題句]Changingatireisamatteroffoursimplesteps.First,jackupthesideofthecarhighenoughtocleartheground.Second,carefullyloosenthenutsthatholdthetireandriminplacebyusinglugwrench.Next,removetheflattireandputthesparetireinplace.Nowyouarereadytoputthenutsbackonthewheelandtightenthemwell.此種組織模式在四級閱讀測試試題中相當常見。例如：（2000年6月）Longafterthe1998WorldCupwaswon,disappointedfanswerestillcursingthedisputedrefereeing(裁判)decisionsthatdeniedvictorytotheirteam.Aresearcherwasappointed[中心主題]tostudytheperformanceofsometopreferees.Theresearcherorganizedanexperimentaltournament(錦標賽)involvingfouryouthteams.Eachmatchlastedanhour,dividedintothreeperiodsof20minutesduringwhichdifferentrefereeswereincharge.Observersnoteddownthereferees'errors,ofwhichtherewere61overthetournament.Convertedtoastandardmatchof90minutes,eachrefereemadealmost23mistakes,aremarkablyhighnumber.Theresearcherthenstudiedthevideotapestoanalysethematchesindetail.Surprisingly,hefoundthaterrorsweremorelikelywhentherefereeswereclosetotheincident.Whentheofficialsgotitright,theywere,onaverage,17metersawayfromtheaction.Theaveragedistanceinthecaseoferrorswas12meters.Theresearchshowstheoptimum(最佳的)distanceisabout20meters.Therealsoseemedtobeanoptimumspeed.Correctdecisionscamewhentherefereesweremovingataspeedofabout2meterspersecond.Theaveragespeedforerrorswas4meterspersecond.IfFIFA,football'sinternationalrulingbody,wantstoimprovethestandardofrefereeingatthenextWorldCup,[結(jié)論]itshouldencouragerefereestokeeptheireyesontheactionfromadistance,ratherthanrushingtokeepupwiththeball,theresearcherargues.HealsosaysthatFIFA'sinsistencethatrefereesshouldretireatage45maybemisguided.Ifkeepingupwiththeactionisnotsoimportant,[結(jié)論]theirphysicalconditionislesscritical.這篇短文的細節(jié)部分的組織模式即為過程/程序法，作者用了三個步驟：①組織一場實驗性的比賽；②記下裁判犯下的錯誤；③對錄像帶進行研究。以此來說明主題“(how)tostudytheperformanceofsometopreferees.”并在文章的最后，給出了兩個結(jié)論?？忌鷳斪⒁鈪^(qū)分列舉法和過程/程序法，列舉法模式中的順序可以隨意調(diào)換，但過程/程序法中的順序不可以隨意改變。（三）類別法：作者在首句或主題句中探討事物較大一級的類別/種類之后，用首句中大類別屬下的小類別對主題進行一一說明或支持的細節(jié)組織模式。常見典型的信號標志：categories,kinds,classes,groups,elements,varieties,等。[主題句]Therearetwofactorsdetermineanindividual’sintelligence.Thefirstisthesortofbrainheisbornwith.Humanbrainsdifferconsiderably,somebeingmorecapablethanothers.Butnomatterhowgoodabrainhehastobeginwith,anindividualwillhavealoworderofintelligenceunlesshehasopportunitiestolearn.Sothesecondfactoriswhathappenstotheindividual-thesortofenvironmentinwhichheisreared.Ifanindividualishandicappedenvironmentally,itislikelythathisbrainwillfailtodevelopandhewillneverattaintheleverofintelligenceofwhichheiscapable.這篇短文所用的模式就是典型的類別法：主題句先提到?jīng)Q定個人智力的因素有兩個。然后再分別對兩個因素進行一一說明。類別法在四級閱讀試卷出現(xiàn)過，但并不常見，下面是一個例子（1999年6月）：

[主題句]Martineputsitdownto,amongotherthings,soapoperas(通俗電視連續(xù)劇)andinstallment(分期付款)plansintroducedinthe1970s.Bothplayedanimportant,althoughindirect,roleinloweringthebirthrate.Brazilisoneoftheworld'sbiggestproducersofsoapoperas.Globl,Brazil'smostpopulartelevisionnetwork,showsthreehoursofsoapssixnightsaweek,whilethreeothersshowatleastonehouranight.Mostsoapsarebasedonwealthycharacterslivingthehighlifeinbigcities."Althoughtheyhaveneverreallytriedtoworkinamessagetowardstheproblemsofreproduction,theydescribemiddleandupperclassvaluesnotmanychildren,differentattitudestowardssex,womenworking,"saysMartine."Theysent

thisimagetoallpartsofBrazilandmadepeopleconsciousofotherpatternsofbehaviorandothervalues,whichwereputintoaveryattractivepackage."Meanwhile,theinstallmentplanstriedtoencouragethepoortobecomeconsumers."Thisledtoanenormouschangeinconsumptionpatternsandconsumptionwasincompatible(不相容的)withunlimitedreproduction."saysMartine.作者在主題句中提出通俗電視連續(xù)劇和分期付款兩個因素之后，隨后在下文分別對它們展開一一說明。（四）舉例法：作者通過一系列例子或一個例子來說明或支持主題或觀點。舉例法的特點是生動、直觀、更具有說服力，能將復雜的內(nèi)容簡單化，在四級閱讀測試中很常見。例如：（1999年1月）[中心主題]Theappealofadvertisingtobuyingmotivescanhavebothnegativeandpositiveeffects.Consumersmaybeconvincedtobuyaproductofpoorqualityorhighpricebecauseofanadvertisement.Forexample,someadvertisershaveappealedtopeople'sdesireforbetterfueleconomyfortheircarsbyadvertisingautomotiveproductsthatimprovegasolinemileage.Someoftheproductswork.Othersareworthlessandawasteofconsumers'money.

[主題/段首句]Sometimesadvertisingisintentionallymisleading.Afewyearsagoabrandofbreadwasofferedtodieters(節(jié)食者)withthemessagethattherewerefewercalories(熱量單位，大卡)ineveryslice.Itturnedoutthatthebreadwasnotdietetic(適合于節(jié)食的),butjustregularbread.Therewerefewercaloriesbecauseitwasslicedverythin,buttherewerethesamenumberofcaloriesineveryloaf.

[主題/段首句]Onthepositiveside,emotionalappealsmayrespondtoaconsumer'srealconcerns.Considerfireinsurance.Fireinsurancemaybesoldbyappealingtofearofloss.Butfearoflossistherealreasonforfireinsurance.Thesecurityofknowingthatpropertyisprotectedbyinsurancemakesthepurchaseoffireinsuranceaworthwhileinvestmentformostpeople.Ifconsumersconsiderthequalityoftheinsuranceplansaswellasthemessageintheads,theywillbenefitfromtheadvertising.[結(jié)論句]Eachconsumermustevaluateherorhisownsituation.Arethebenefitsoftheproductimportantenoughtojustifybuyingit?Advertisingisintendedtoappealtoconsumers,butitdoesnotforcethemtobuytheproduct.Consumersstillcontrolthefinalbuyingdecision.

這是一例很典型的舉例法模式：作者一開篇提出中心主題——Theappealofadvertisingtobuyingmotivescanhavebothnegativeandpositiveeffects.隨后通過信號詞（forexample）引出例子對中心主題加以說明。緊接著在第二段段首句出現(xiàn)之后，作者又以“abrandofbread”為例，對段主題加以生動地說明。在第三段段主題之后，作者再一次引用“fireinsurance”為例子。最后作者在結(jié)尾段得出結(jié)論：Eachconsumermustevaluateherorhisownsituation。文章連貫，一氣呵成，且極具說服力。又如：（2002年12月）Privatization,orthethreatofit,isamotivationaswell.Monopolies(壟斷者)thatuntilrecentlyhavebeenfreetotaketheircustomersforgrantednowfearwhatMichaelPerry,amarketingprofessor,calls“therevengeful(報復的)consumer.”WhenthegovernmentopenedupcompetitionwithBezaq,thephonecompany,itsinternationalbranchlost40%ofitsmarketshare,evenwhileofferingcompetitiverates.SaysPerry,“Peoplewantedrevengeforalltheyearsofbadservice.”Theelectriccompany,whosemonopolymaybeshort-lived,hassuddenlystoppedrequiringuserstowaithalfadayforarepairman.Now,appointmentsarescheduledtothehalf-hour.ThegracelessElAlAirlines,whichisalreadyatauction(拍賣)，hasretraineditsemployeestoemphasizeserviceandisboastingabouttheresultsinanadcampaignwiththeslogan,“Youcanfeelthechangeintheair.”Forthefirsttime,praiseoutnumberscomplaintsoncustomersurveysheets.此段也是一例典型的舉例法模式：作者在主題句出現(xiàn)后，連續(xù)引用了三個例子（thephonecompany,theelectriccompany,theELALAirlines）來支持、論證段主題。（五）因果法：一種極為常見的篇章段落組織模式。通常有以下幾種情形：①篇章段落的首句表達原因，隨后在輔助句后的細節(jié)支持句部分闡述原因所造成的結(jié)果。②或恰恰相反，篇章段落的首句給出結(jié)果，隨后在輔助句或支持句部分道出此結(jié)果相關的原因。此模式在四級閱讀測試中比比皆是，例如：（1999年1月）PresidentCoolidge'sstatement,“ThebusinessofAmericaisbusiness,”stillpointstoanimportanttruthtodaythatbusinessinstitutionshavemoreprestige(威望)inAmericansocietythananyotherkindoforganization,includingthegovernment.[中心主題]Whydobusinessinstitutionspossessthisgreatprestige?[段首句]OnereasonisthatAmericansviewbusinessasbeingmorefirmlybasedontheidealofcompetitionthanotherinstitutionsinsociety.SincecompetitionisseenasthemajorsourceofprogressandprosperitybymostAmericans,competitivebusinessinstitutionsarerespected.Competitionisnotonlygoodinitself,itisthemeansbywhichotherbasicAmericanvaluessuchasindividualfreedom,equalityofopportunity,andhardworkareprotected.

[段首句]Competitionprotectsthefreedomoftheindividualbyensuringthatthereisnomonopoly(壟斷)ofpower.Incontrasttoone,all-powerfulgovernment,manybusinessescompeteagainsteachotherforprofits.Theoretically,ifonebusinesstriestotakeunfairadvantageofitscustomers,itwilllosetocompetingbusinesswhichtreatsitscustomersmorefairly.Wheremanybusinessescompeteforthecustomers'dollar,theycannotaffordtotreatthemlikeinferiorsorslaves.

[段首句]Acontrastisoftenmadebetweenbusiness,whichiscompetitive,andgovernment,whichisamonopoly.Becausebusinessiscompetitive,manyAmericansbelievethatitismoresupportiveoffreedomthangovernment,eventhoughgovernmentleadersareelectedbythepeopleandbusinessleadersarenot.ManyAmericansbelieve,then,thatcompetitionisasimportant,orevenmoreimportant,thatdemocracyinpreservingfreedom.

[段首句]Competitioninbusinessisalsobelievedtostrengthentheidealofequalityofopportunity.Competitionisseenasanopenandfairracewheresuccessgoestotheswiftestpersonregardlessofhisorhersocialclassbackground.CompetitivesuccessiscommonlyseenastheAmericanalternativetosocialrankbasedonfamilybackground.Businessisthereforeviewedasanexpressionoftheideaofequalityofopportunityratherthanthearistocratic(貴族的)ideaofinheritedprivilege.

這是一篇典型的因果法模式：作者在開篇時提出中心主題——“Whydobusinessinstitutionspossessthisgreatprestige?”然后在第二段進行原因解釋：OnereasonisthatAmericansviewbusinessasbeingmorefirmlybasedontheidealofcompetitionthanotherinstitutionsinsociety。而本句恰好為第二段的段首句，隨后作者又對此段首句進行原因剖析，使用了一個信號詞“since”。還引出另一系列原因而且成為下面三段的段首句。同樣地，作者圍繞這三段的段首句展開了相關的原因分析。借助因果法組織模式，作者的論證層層推進，思路清晰。另一種常見的因果模式在四級閱讀試題中也出現(xiàn)過，舉例如下：（1999年6月）

[主題句]WhyisAmericanlaggingbehindintheglobalPRrace?First,Americansasawholetendtobefairlyprovincialandtakemoreofaninterestinlocalaffairs.Knowledgeofworldgeography,forexample,hasneverbeenstronginthiscountry.Secondly,AmericanslagbehindtheirEuropeanandAsiancounterparts(相對應的人)inknowingasecondlanguage.Lessthan5percentofBurson-Marshall'sU.S.employeesknowtwolanguages.OgilvyandMatherhasaboutthesamepercentageConversely,someEuropeanfirmshavehalformoreoftheiremployeesfluentinasecondlanguage.Finally,peopleinvolvedinPRabroadtendtokeepaclosereyeon

internationalaffairs.InthefinancialPRarea,forinstance,mostAmericansreadtheWallStreetJournal.Overseas,theircounterpartsreadtheJournalaswellastheFinancialTimesofLondonandTheEconomist,publicationsnotoftenreadinthiscountry.

作者在給出主題之后，通過first,secondly,finally陳述了三個原因。常見的表因果的信號詞有：because,since,asaresult,iscausedby,dueto,consequently,forthisreason,so,therefore,leadto等。（六）時間順序法：按照事件發(fā)生的時間的先后順序來陳述事實即為時間順序法。該方法常用于描述某一機器、某一種思想、某一個或某一事件的相關歷史。例如：[主題句]Manhaslearnedtotravelfasterandfasterthroughouthistory.Whenthewheelwasinventedoverathousandyearsago,manlearnedthatitwaspossibletotravelfasteronwheelsthanonfoot.Withtheinventionofthesteamengineabouttwohundredyearsago,manbegantotravelatwhatwascalled“dangerous”speedofbetween20to30milesanhour.Thegasolineenginesthatwereusedbetween1900and1920developedspeedsupto60milesanhour.Inthelate1920’s,propellerairplanesbegantoflyatthespeedofmorethan100milesanhour.Abouttwentyyearsago,manbegantotravelincommercialjetplanesatspeedsabove500milesanhour.該例為典型的時間順序法，作者按時間的先后對人類的交通發(fā)展史進行描述。時間順序法常見且容易辨認。常用的信號詞有：before,after,next,then,once,untilnow,earlier,later,previously等。該模式在四級閱讀考試中也有典型的例子，例如：(1997年6月)Inthepast,makingstructuresquake-resistantmeantfirmyetflexiblematerials,suchassteelandwood,thatbendwithoutbreaking.Later,peopletriedtoliftabuildingoffitsfoundation,andinsertrubberandsteelbetweenthebuildinganditsfoundationtoreducetheimpactofthegroundvibrations.Themostrecentdesigngivesbuildingsbrainsaswellasconcreteandsteelsupports.Calledsmartbuildings,thestructuresrespondlikelivingorganismstoanearthquake’svibration.Whenthegroundshakesandthebuildingtipsforward,thecomputerwouldforcethebuildingtoshiftintheoppositedirection.（七）比較和/或?qū)Ρ确ǎ涸谏钪?，人們對事物時常進行比較和對比。在此，比較指出事物的相似之處，而對比是討論兩個事物的不同點。比較和對比組織模式可以分別使用，更多的時候是一起使用，因為事物在多數(shù)情況下既可有相同又有不同之處。例如：[主題句]Learningtoreadwellislikelearningtoimproveinasport.Therearesomanythingstothinkofallatthesametime.Theinexperiencedtennisplayer,forexample,mustremembertobendhisknees.Hemustthinkofkeepinghiseyesontheball.Hemustremembertoholdhiswriststraightandfollowthroughonhisswing.Theinexperiencedreaderalsohastoremembermanythingsatonce.Hemusttrytoreadinphrases,notwordbyword.Hemustanalyzenewwords,lookforthemainidea,noteimportantdetails.Andatthesametimehemustreadfasterandfaster.Boththebeginningreaderandthetennisplayerfeelfrustrated.Butpracticepaysoffforthetennisplayer.Practicewillpatoffforthereadertooandleadtohigherandshaperskills.Readingwellwillbecomeasnaturalashittingaballwell.該篇使用了比較模式：主題句之后，作者對學習閱讀和學習打網(wǎng)球進行了三方面的比較。在比較的過程中使用了（like,also,too,as…as）等信號詞。再看下面一例：Thereislittledifferenceinthetwomagazines.Botharepublishedonceaweek,andbothreportthelatestnewsevents.Theyoftenhavesimilarphotographsonthefrontpage.Onemagazineislargerthantheother,butthedifferenceisnotimportant.該例雖短，但既有比較也有對比。比較和/對比法在四級閱讀測試在也很常見，如1999年1月的PassageFour：Solongasteachersfailtodistinguishbetweenteachingandlearning,theywillcontinuetoundertaketodoforchildrenthatwhichonlychildrencandoforthemselves.[中心主題]Teachingchildrentoreadisnotpassingreadingontothem.Itiscertainlynotendlesshoursspentinactivitiesaboutreading.Douglasinsiststhat“readingcannotbetaughtdirectlyandschoolsshouldstoptryingtodotheimpossible.”[段首句]Teachingandlearningaretwoentirelydifferentprocesses.Theydifferinkindandfunction.Thefunctionofteachingistocreatetheconditionsandtheclimatethatwillmakeitpossibleforchildrentodevisethemostefficientsystemforteachingthemselvestoread.Teachingisalsopublicactivity:Itcanbeseenandobserved.Learningtoreadinvolvesallthateachindividualdoestomakesenseoftheworldofprintedlanguage.Almostallofitisprivate,forlearningisanoccupationofthemind,andthatprocessisnotopentopublicscrutiny.

Ifteacherandlearnerrolesarenotinterchangeable,whatthencanbedonethroughteachingthatwillaidthechildinthequest(探索)forknowledge?Smithhasoneprincipalruleforallteachinginstructions.“makelearningtoreadeasy,whichmeans[結(jié)論]makingreadingameaningful,enjoyableandfrequentexperienceforchildren.”

Whentherolesofteacherandlearnerareseenforwhattheyare,andwhenbothteacherandlearnerfulfillthemappropriately,thenmuchofthepressureandfeelingoffailureforbothiseliminated.[結(jié)論]Learningtoreadismadeeasierwhenteacherscreateanenvironmentwherechildrenaregiventheopportunitytosolvetheproblemofleaningtoreadbyreading.

這是一篇議論文，作者開宗明義，闡明中心主題，進而通過對比的組織模式來分析教與學的本質(zhì)區(qū)別（第二、三段，特別關注第二段的段首句及其后面出現(xiàn)的黑體字部分），指出了閱讀不能靠傳授，而應當靠學生的自學。最后在結(jié)論部分（最后兩段）作者明確教授閱讀的原則。比較和/或?qū)Ρ确ㄖ谐Ｒ姷男盘栐~有：similarly,too,also,likewise,inthesameway,unlike,ontheotherhand,