大學(xué)英語語法(全).ppt

1、College English Grammar,大學(xué)英語語法,語法簡介,語法的涵義、特點及分類 語法的三個層面：形式、意義、用法 掌握語法的重要性及語法教學(xué)的目標(biāo) 英語語法的構(gòu)成和特點 大學(xué)英語語法教學(xué)的重難點 如何更有效地掌握大學(xué)英語語法,語法是語言的規(guī)則 語法是詞的構(gòu)成、變化和用詞造句的規(guī)則 語法包括詞法和句法 語法是語言學(xué)的一個分支,研究按確定用法來運用的詞類、詞的屈折變化或表示相互關(guān)系的其他手段以及詞在句中的功能和關(guān)系,語法的涵義,語法具有高度的抽象性 語法具有強大的遞歸性 語法具有嚴(yán)密的系統(tǒng)性 語法具有相對的穩(wěn)固性 語法還具有民族性,語法的特點,從歷時角度，可分為傳統(tǒng)語法和現(xiàn)代語法

2、（以結(jié)構(gòu)主義語言學(xué)出現(xiàn)為界） 從描寫目的，可分為理論語法和教學(xué)語法 （英語語法屬教學(xué)語法的范疇）,語法的分類,語法的三個層面:形式、意義、用法,形式：某個語法結(jié)構(gòu)怎樣構(gòu)成的。比如“現(xiàn)在完成進(jìn)行時”的結(jié)構(gòu)形式是have been doing。這是使用語法規(guī)則的起點，即首先要做到能夠準(zhǔn)確地構(gòu)造某個語法結(jié)構(gòu)，這是語法結(jié)構(gòu)的準(zhǔn)確性問題。,意義：某個語法結(jié)構(gòu)表達(dá)的意義。比如“現(xiàn)在完成進(jìn)行時”可以表示“一個活動從過去一直延續(xù)到現(xiàn)在說話時刻”這樣的含義，這就是現(xiàn)在完成時態(tài)這一結(jié)構(gòu)所具備的語法意義。由此可以看出，特定意義一般是對應(yīng)于特定的結(jié)構(gòu)形式的，或者說，特定的結(jié)構(gòu)形式能夠表達(dá)特定的意義（Particula

3、r forms will express their particular meanings）。對于一個句子，它的含義不僅僅是來自于句中所使用的詞匯的含義，而是還有來自于其中特定語法結(jié)構(gòu)所含有的語法意義。,用法：關(guān)于何時/為什么使用某一語法結(jié)構(gòu)的問題。這與在實際交流中的語境有關(guān)系，即什么樣的語境中，采用何種語法結(jié)構(gòu)來表達(dá)特定的意義才合適，這是有關(guān)語法結(jié)構(gòu)的合適型問題。意義和用法是密切相關(guān)的，有時難以嚴(yán)格界定。,某一特定的語法結(jié)構(gòu)的形式、意義和用法這三者之間是相互聯(lián)系的，圖示如下：,形式（Form） 語法結(jié)構(gòu)怎樣構(gòu)成 （準(zhǔn)確性）,意義（Meaning） 語法結(jié)構(gòu)表達(dá)什么意義 （表意性）,用法（U

4、sage） 何時/為什么使用 （合適性）,語法形式、意義、用法三者之間的關(guān)系： 英語學(xué)習(xí)者要能夠準(zhǔn)確地、有意義地、恰當(dāng)?shù)厝ミ\用英語語言結(jié)構(gòu)。 做到這一點，才能真正靈活使用語法規(guī)則，并進(jìn)而在思維高度上來使用英語。比如：,I have been coming to Beijing for fourteen years. 翻譯一：我來北京有14年了。 翻譯二：在過去這14年中，我常常來北京。,翻譯二正確。 Have been doing 在英文中表示的是一個重復(fù)的動作，具體來說：用短暫動詞（如come）的完成進(jìn)行時（如have been coming）來表示到目前為止的一段時間內(nèi)重復(fù)發(fā)生的動作。,因

5、此，知道語法結(jié)構(gòu)的正確構(gòu)造形式只是第一步，還要清楚其表達(dá)的語法意義。但知其二并不能保證能夠正確使用，還要知道其用法。其用法與語言環(huán)境密切相關(guān)。,句子與語境 在真實的語言交際過程中，任何一個句子都不能夠孤立存在，都有一個賴以生存的環(huán)境。甚至有時候，語境決定了一個句子真正要表達(dá)的意思。 比如下面這個電影對白發(fā)生在一位父親與自己女兒的男朋友之間：,Father: Do you drink? Young Man: No,thanks,Im cool. Father: Im asking If you drink. Do you think Id offer alcohol to teenage dri

6、vers taking my daughter out?,這位父親問他女兒的男朋友（其正準(zhǔn)備開車帶他女兒出門）：Do you drink?他真正的意思是問這個年輕男子是否有飲酒的習(xí)慣，即在詢問情況，而不是問他現(xiàn)在想不想喝酒，即不是在提議。,因此，從交際的角度去看待語法，在具體語境中考查語法規(guī)則的使用，通過語篇、語境駕馭語法來達(dá)到十分具體的交際目的。我們不僅知道“應(yīng)該”怎么說（what learners should say）,更應(yīng)該去了解為什么英語本族語者要“這樣”說（what native speakers of English actually do say and why）。,“要掌握一

7、門語言，首先要掌握其語法。只有掌握了語法，最終才能掌握語言，才能得心應(yīng)手地運用之?！?The first and most important step in gaining over the language is gaining control over its grammar. It is the knowledge of grammar that yields access to the rich possibilities of the language and the means to use it. -不列顛英語用法大全,掌握語法的重要性,“語言的科學(xué)和藝術(shù)” -英國著名語言學(xué)H

8、.Sweet,兩個目標(biāo)、三個階段： 高級階段 過渡階段 初級階段 由此看出學(xué)習(xí)語法知識是第一步，通過不斷的練習(xí)才能實現(xiàn)向語言能力的轉(zhuǎn)換，最終達(dá)到言語交際的目的。,練,語法教學(xué)的目標(biāo),外語語法學(xué)習(xí)示意圖： 高級階段 過渡階段 初級階段 學(xué)習(xí)方式,語法知識與語言技能 語法知識如何轉(zhuǎn)化為語言技能，要做到下面兩點： 首先，要“多思考”（think much）,要認(rèn)真領(lǐng)悟書中所講到的語法規(guī)則。認(rèn)真思考語法規(guī)則背后的合乎情理的思維規(guī)律，把“課本上的語法”（a textbook grammar）變?yōu)椤邦^腦中的語法”（a mental grammar）即逐漸培養(yǎng)自己運用英語思維的能力。,其次，要“多練習(xí)”（p

9、ractice much），這里的練習(xí)，不僅是指為了應(yīng)付考試而做的大量的閱讀練習(xí)和單項選擇題練習(xí)，而是包括聽、說、讀、寫、譯全方位的練習(xí)，尤其是口語和寫作這種語言產(chǎn)出能力的練習(xí)。,英語語法包括詞法和句法 詞法:名詞（noun）、動詞(verb)、形容詞(adjective)、冠詞(article)、數(shù)詞(numeral)、介詞(preposition)、代詞(pronoun)、連詞(conjunction)、副詞(adverb)等詞類的用法 句法：一般規(guī)則的用法和特殊規(guī)則的用法,英語語法的構(gòu)成,英語語法構(gòu)成示意圖,動態(tài)中把握英語語法,把握英語句子由易到難的五個層次的變化 學(xué)會從動態(tài)發(fā)展的角度去

10、理解和思考語法在句子中的體現(xiàn),英語句子五個層次的變化,簡單的簡單句 復(fù)雜的簡單句 非簡單句 復(fù)雜結(jié)構(gòu)充當(dāng)句子成分 從句套從句的結(jié)構(gòu),簡單的簡單句 六個最基本句型,以及其中包含的六種句子成分(主謂賓系表補)。 SV(主謂) SVO(主謂賓) SVP(主系表) SVOOC(主謂賓賓補) SVIODO(主謂雙賓語) There be + O (There be),復(fù)雜的簡單句 在六大句型基礎(chǔ)上加三大修飾成分(定語、狀語、同位語)后句子變得更加復(fù)雜了,但仍屬于簡單句(即句號前只有一個主謂結(jié)構(gòu))。 如： I left the beautiful city Beijing yesterday. 主 謂 定

11、 賓 同位 狀,非簡單句 當(dāng)一個句號前出現(xiàn)兩個、甚至更多個主謂結(jié)構(gòu)時,簡單句就變成了并列句或復(fù)合句。 并列句（并列連詞連接） 復(fù)合句（從句引導(dǎo)詞引導(dǎo)）,復(fù)雜結(jié)構(gòu)充當(dāng)句子成分 簡單句子中的成分一般由簡單的詞或詞組充當(dāng),而隨著句子變長變難,句中的一個成分可能就會由長而且復(fù)雜的結(jié)構(gòu)充當(dāng),如從句、非謂語動詞短語、動詞短語、形容詞短語、介詞短語等等。 如： Feeling upset and not wanting to try, I left the city which I loved. （分詞短語作狀語、從句作定語）,從句套從句的結(jié)構(gòu) 一個復(fù)雜的句子中,可以有兩個以上的從句,這些從句相互之間可以是

12、平行關(guān)系,也可以是從屬關(guān)系(即從句套從句),這種情況理解難度較大。,如： The American economic system is organized around a basically private-enterprise, market-oriented economy in which consumers largely determine what shall be produced by spending their money in the marketplace for those goods and services thatthey want most. (1994年

13、考研英語passage 1),下面通過英漢語法的對比來看英語語法的特點,英語語法的特點,英漢語法對比,一、 漢語中有很多無主語句子或省略主語的句子，在用英語表達(dá)時，須補出主語（祈使句的情形例外）。如：,1、暑假過得很開心 The summer vacation is happy. (F) We/They had a good time in the summer vacation. (T) (上面的這個漢語句子實際上沒有主語，“暑假”在句中是狀語。譯成英語時須加主語We/They/He/I 等。),2、天氣糟透了。整天刮大風(fēng)下大雨的。 The weather was so bad. It bl

14、ew hard and rained heavily all the day. （翻譯時必須補出主語It。）,3、考試沒過別泄氣。 Dont lose heart if you dont pass the exam. （翻譯時在從句中要補充出主語you.）,二、漢語中有很多無生物名詞作主語，但在英語中要改用生物即人作主語。如： 1、你的英語真棒。 Your English is excellent. (F) You are excellent in English. ( T ),2、史密斯先生雙目失明。 Mr Smiths eyes are blind. (F) Mr Smith is bli

15、nd in both eyes. ( T ),三、漢語中的一些句子以生物即人作主語，但受表語形容詞的制約，在英語中不可以人為主語。如：,1、你方便的話，請在六點鐘來。 Please come at six if you are convenient. (F) Please come at six if it is convenient to you. (T),2、你很難說服他不去逛街。 You are difficult to persuade him out of going shopping. ( F ) It is difficult for you to persuade him ou

16、t of going shopping. ( T ) 但是我們可以說：English is difficult to learn for some people.,四、漢語中有大量的無謂語動詞句子，但英語是一種以動詞為中心的語言，每個句子幾乎都少不了謂語動詞（省略句除外）。如：,1、這本書值得一讀。 The book worth reading. ( F ) The book is worth reading. (T ),2、我父母每天都很忙。 My parents very busy every day. ( F ) My parents are very busy every day. (

17、 T ),五、漢語中及物動詞與不及物動詞、狀態(tài)動詞與動作動詞的差別不大，界限不明，但在英語 中卻有嚴(yán)格區(qū)別和固定的用法模式。如： 1、他與她結(jié)婚了。 He married with her. (with 是多余的),2、凡是黨和人民所要求的，我一定做到。 Ill do what the Party and the people require me. ( 譯句中require 后須加 of。),3、我開始學(xué)英語到現(xiàn)在已有十年了。 I have begun to learn English for ten years. (F) It has been ten years since I bega

18、n to learn English. (T),4、這本雜志我可以借多久？ How long can I borrow this magazine? (F) How long can I keep this magazine? (T) (borrow 是一個表示瞬間短暫行為的動作動詞，當(dāng)然不能與how long 連用。),5、父親直到半夜才睡覺。 Father went to bed until midnight. (F) Father didnt go to bed until midnight. Or: Father stayed up until midnight. (T),六、在漢語中

19、，詞形沒有變化；在英語中卻有豐富的詞形變化。如：,醫(yī)生建議他每天喝兩杯牛奶。 The doctor suggest that he drinks two glass of milk every day. (F) The doctor suggests that he (should) drink two glasses of milk every day. (T),英語中名、形、副、動、數(shù)詞等均有詞形變化，其中以動詞的形式變化最多，看下例：,1、西瓜切成了八等份。 The watermelon divides into eight equal shares. (F) The watermelo

20、n is divided into eight equal shares. (T),2、從這一角度看，情況似乎沒那么令人失望。 Looking at in this way, the situation doesnt seem so disappointing. (F) Looked at in this way, the situation doesnt seem so disappointing. (T),強化重點、突出難點：情態(tài)動詞、虛擬語氣、從句、強調(diào)、倒裝、否定、省略、主謂一致、比較等是大學(xué)英語語法的重難點 從詞法、句法層面上升到語篇層面：大學(xué)英語語法教學(xué)則更偏重句法的教學(xué)。句法教學(xué)

21、體現(xiàn)在理解語篇當(dāng)中的長難句,而理解長難句最多運用到的語法知識就是從句、平行比較結(jié)構(gòu)和非謂語動詞短語三大語法規(guī)則,大學(xué)英語語法的重難點,如：The change met the technical requirements of the new age by engaging a large professional element (分詞短語作介賓)and prevented the decline in efficiency (and連接平行結(jié)構(gòu))that so commonly spoiled the fortunes of family firms (that引導(dǎo)定語從句)in the

22、second and third generation after the energetic founders.(1996年考研英語閱讀理解passage 3),英語語法學(xué)得好不好，主要不是看你讀了多少語法書，記了多少條語法規(guī)則，而是要看你在實踐中能否正確掌握所學(xué)的這些語法規(guī)則能聽懂，說得好，寫得好，理解得好，譯得準(zhǔn)確。 要掌握好一個語法項目，就得靠多聽、多說、多寫、多讀、多譯，也就是做反復(fù)的、大量的、多樣化的練習(xí)。,如何掌握英語語法,目錄,（一）語氣（虛擬語氣） （二）情態(tài)動詞 （三）形容詞、副詞及比較級、最高級 （四）代詞及其指代一致 （五）主謂一致 （六）倒裝結(jié)構(gòu) （七）省略問題 （八

23、）否定句及其慣常用法 （九）獨立主格結(jié)構(gòu) （十）名詞性從句,第一講,語氣,mood,Please sit down! I am a teacher./I am not a teacher./Are you a teacher? If I were you, I would do better.,Mood,英語中有三種語氣： 祈使語氣（Imperative mood） 直陳語氣（Indicative mood） 虛擬語氣（Subjunctive mood）,Subjunctive mood,If he had driven (drive) more carefully, he would not

24、 have had (have) the car accident yesterday.,虛擬語氣是一種表示假設(shè)、意愿、建議、請求、命令、猜測、可能或主觀打算的一種語氣。,近兩年虛擬語氣在英語四六級中的考查情況：體現(xiàn)在翻譯題型中,【CET-4:2006.6】 The professor required that we hand in our research report (s) . (我們交研究報告)。 【CET-6:2007.6】 It is absolutely unfair that these children (should) be deprived of the right t

25、o receive education . (被剝奪了受教育的權(quán)利).,Its time something was done/some measures were taken (采取措施) about the traffic problem downtown.,【CET-4:2006.12】 The victim would have survived (本來會有機會活下來)if he had been taken to hospital in time. 【CET-6:2007.12】 But for mobile phone, our communication would not ha

26、ve been so efficient and convenient. (我們的通訊就不可能如此迅速和方便),【CET-6:2007 】 If you had followed my advice/ suggestion, you would not have been in trouble. (聽從了我的忠告， 你就不會陷入麻煩).,虛擬語氣的考點歸納如下： (should)+動詞原形的情形 wish, if only, it is time的用法 if或but for等引導(dǎo)的條件句,Summary,1.1 虛擬語氣的類別,從虛擬語氣的形式和內(nèi)容兩方面著眼，可將其分為三大類： be型虛擬語

27、氣 Were型虛擬語氣 條件虛擬語氣,1.2 be型虛擬語氣,Be型虛擬語氣指在任何情況下，不分時態(tài)、人稱，句子謂語動詞統(tǒng)統(tǒng)使用原形動詞的虛擬形式，be型虛擬語氣主要有兩種用途,1）用于含有命令、建議、要求等意義的結(jié)構(gòu)中 含有上述意義的動詞后的賓語從句 含有上述意義的名詞后的同位語從句或表語從句 含有上述意義的某些It is +過去分詞+that 或it is +形容詞+that 的結(jié)構(gòu)中 在英國英語中，這一類的虛擬語氣也可以用should+原形動詞的形式,The teacher insisted that we be in his office at 5 oclock. 老師堅持讓我們五點鐘

28、到他的辦公室去。 The general ordered that his troops retreat from the frontline. 將軍命令部隊從前線撤退。,All I request of you is that you be punctual. 我只要你準(zhǔn)時到。 It is essential that the new technique be introduced. 引進(jìn)新工藝很重要。 It is imperative that you present yourself at the meeting. 你務(wù)必親自出席會議。,Instructions are issued t

29、hat the war prisoners be released. 釋放所有戰(zhàn)犯的命令已經(jīng)下達(dá)。 It is the committees decision that the meeting be put off until next Friday. 委員會決定會議延至下星期五舉行。,常與be型虛擬語氣連用的 動詞主要有：advise,agree,decide,demand,insist,move,order,prefer, propose, request,require,suggest等 名詞主要有：decision,advice.demand,instruction,order,ins

30、istence, proposal, requirement,resolution,suggestion等 形容詞主要有：advisable,desirable,appropriate,essential,fitting, important,imperative,impossible,necessary,obligatory,proper,vital,urgent等,用于表示祝愿、詛咒、假定、讓步、擔(dān)憂等含義的結(jié)構(gòu)和一些固定用法中。 這些虛擬語氣多由某些特定的連接詞引導(dǎo)，它們多為古英語虛擬語氣的殘余，現(xiàn)僅限于正式場合使用，一般可為直陳語氣所取代。,如： If that be the case

31、, we have to give up our original plan. 倘若情況果真如此，我們將不得不放棄原定計劃。 Whatever be your reason, you have no right to be rude to your elders. 無論你有什么理由，你都無權(quán)對長輩們粗魯無禮。,They evacuated the building lest the wall collapse. 他們撤出了大樓，以防墻壁倒塌。 Though he slay me, will I trust in him? 即使他要殺我，我也要信賴他嗎？ Long live our mother

32、land！ 祖國萬歲！,God save his soul. 上帝保佑他的靈魂得到安息。 Far be it from me to accept his advice blindly.我決不會盲目接受他的意見。 Home is home, be it ever so homely. 家縱簡陋，總歸是家。 We can always lend you a helping hand if need be. 倘有必要，我們隨時可以援一引手。,1.3 were型虛擬語氣,Were 型虛擬語氣主要指be動詞在某些表示與事實相反的語境里使用固定的were形式 其他動詞在類似的語境里使用過去時或過去完成體形

33、式的虛擬語氣。,Were型虛擬語氣主要用于表示與事實相反的愿望、假設(shè)、印象、看法等意義的結(jié)構(gòu)中 Wish一類動詞后的賓語從句 If only, as if, would rather/sooner, it is time 等短語后邊的句子，如與現(xiàn)在情況相反，虛擬語氣用動詞的過去時（be動詞用were）, 與過去情況相反，則用過去完成體形式,We earnestly wish he were here with us sharing our happiness. 我真希望他此刻正與我們在一起分享我們的快樂。 I do wish the frightful calamity had not bef

34、allen us. 我真希望那場可怕的災(zāi)難沒有降臨到我們頭上。,If only his advice had been acted upon. 當(dāng)時要是采納了他的意見該有多好。 How dare you come in as if you owned the place? 你怎么敢象是這地方的主人似的隨意進(jìn)來？ I would rather we had dinner now. 我倒愿意現(xiàn)在就吃飯。,I would sooner he stayed at home. 我倒寧愿他現(xiàn)在呆在家里。 It is high time you turned over a new leaf. 現(xiàn)在該是你改過

35、自新重新做人的時候了。,1.4 條件虛擬語氣,從總體上說，條件虛擬語氣基本上可理解為是在直陳語氣的基礎(chǔ)上將時間點朝過去的方向推移了一步。 條件虛擬語氣中與各時間情況相反的虛擬動詞形式如下表：,1. 4.1與各時間基準(zhǔn)相反條件虛擬語氣例示 注意虛擬句中隱含的真實情況和作者、說話人的情感、意愿意義，如： If his suggestions had been acted upon, circumstances would have been entirely different. 倘若早將他的建議付諸實施，情況早就完全不同了。,If it hadnt rained so heavily I wou

36、ld surely have come to your meeting on Friday afternoon. 倘若不是天下大雨，我肯定會來出席你們星期五下午召開的會議。 If he knew you are here, he would certainly come to see you . 如果他知道你在這里，他肯定會來看你。,If she dyed her hair a little darker, she would look much younger. 如果她把頭發(fā)染一點，她看起來會顯得年輕很多。 If the sun should rise in the west, I woul

37、d not change my mind. 就是太陽從西邊出來，我也不會改變主意。,1. 4.2省略if的條件虛擬語氣 條件虛擬語氣的條件從句中如有助動詞、動詞be或動詞have時，可以將if省略，將以上這些詞與主語位置倒置，這些用法往往見于比較正式的語體中，如：,Were it not for the heavy fog, the plane would have taken off on schedule. 要不是因為濃霧彌漫，飛機就會按預(yù)定時間起飛。 Were he allowed to exercise a choice, which would he choose of the th

38、ree? 倘若讓他們使選擇權(quán)，三者之中他將挑選哪一個？,Should there be a misfortune, how could its loss be lightened? 如果發(fā)生不幸，怎樣才能減輕損失？ Had I known of your difficulties I would have helped you . 要是我當(dāng)時知道你的窘境，我就會幫你了。,1. 4.3 錯綜條件虛擬語氣 有時條件從句對應(yīng)的時間基準(zhǔn)與結(jié)果主句對應(yīng)的時間基準(zhǔn)可能會出現(xiàn)錯位，如從句表示與過去事實相反的意義，主句表示與現(xiàn)在情況相反等，這時應(yīng)該針對情況對動詞形式予以調(diào)整，如：,If it had not

39、been for the prolonged drought in May ,we should reap a bumper harvest this year. 要不是五月那場持續(xù)的干旱，我們今年可能奪得大豐收。（條件從句與過去事實相反，主句與將來可能情況相反）,Had he not turned a deaf ear to my warning, he would not be in such a difficult situation. 倘若他對我的告誡不置若罔聞的話，他就不會陷入目前的困境了。（條件從句與過去事實相反，主句與現(xiàn)在情況相反）,Had he enough courage h

40、e would certainly take your challenge. 假如他有足夠的勇氣，他肯定會勇敢地接受你的挑戰(zhàn)。（條件從句與現(xiàn)在事實相反，主句與將來情況相反）,Had you worked a bit harder, you would not have to be so extremely worried about the coming examination now. 如果你過去學(xué)習(xí)用功一點，現(xiàn)在也不必象這樣為即將來臨的考試憂心如焚了。（條件從句與過去事實相反，結(jié)果主句與現(xiàn)在情況相反）,1. 4.4 含蓄條件虛擬語氣 有時條件虛擬語氣的條件不是由從句表達(dá)的，而是由介詞詞組或

41、上下文等表達(dá)的，這樣的虛擬語氣稱為含蓄條件虛擬語氣，如：,We could not have achieved such brilliant achievement in the war without the selfless support from the allied forces. 要不是盟軍的無私援助，我們不可能取得如此輝煌的成績。,The plan would have turned out to be quite effective under other circumstances. 換個環(huán)境，該計劃完全可能非常有效。,He would have got much highe

42、r scores in the final examination, but he was so lazy. 他本來在期末考試中得分會高得多的，只是他太懶惰了。,It was snowing heavily or we could have got there on time. 那天正值天降大雪，不然我們本來可以按時到達(dá)的。 With more capital, I would have succeeded. 假如有更多的資本，我可能會取得成功。 The same thing, happening in a crowded place, would have brought a great d

43、isaster. 假如相同的事件發(fā)生在人群擁擠的地方，一定會引起一場大災(zāi)難。,But for the doctors skill, he would have died. 要不是醫(yī)生醫(yī)術(shù)高明，他早就死了。 Five minutes earlier, and we could have caught the last train. 如果早到五分鐘，我們就可以趕上一班火車了。 To hear him speak English, youd take him for an American. 假如你聽他說英語，你會以為他是美國人。,Exercise One,1. If the earth sudde

44、nly _ spinning, we would all fly off it.（1990 年6月四級題） A. stopped B. had stopped C. has stopped D. would stop,2. “How should the city be run?” “If I _ a mayor, I would make the streets cleaner and hire more policemen.”（托福題） A. would B. were C. would be D. should,3. If the whole operation _ beforehand

45、, a great deal of time and money would have been lost.（1999年6月四級題） A. was not planned B. has not been planned C. had not been planned D. were not planned,4. Jean doesnt want to work right away because she thinks that if she _ a job she probably wouldnt be able to see her friends very often.（1996年1月四

46、級題） A. has to get B. were to get C. had got D. could have got,5. If I hadnt stood under the ladder to catch you when you fell, you _ now.（1999年1月四級題） A. wouldnt be smiling B. couldnt have smiled C. wont smile D. didnt smile,6. I apologize if I _ you, but I assure you it was unintentional.（1998年考研題）

47、A. offend B. had offended C. should have offended D. might have offended,7. It is of the utmost importance that you _ here on time.（1995年6月六級題） A. be B. shall be C. are to be D. must be,8. It is recommended that the project _ until all the preparations have been made.(1995年6月四級題) A. is not started B

48、. will not be started C. not be started D. is not to be started,9. Who would you rather his daughter _ in the same office.（2002年6月四級題） A. going B. to go C. have gone D. went,10. Church as we use the word refers to all religious institutions,_ they Christina, Islamic, Buddhist, Jewish, and so on.（200

49、1考研題） A. be B. being C. were D. are,Translation,1.要是我哥哥在這兒，一切都沒有問題了。 If my brother were here, everything would be all right. 2.昨晚如果有時間，我就回來看你的。 If I had had time last night,I would have come to see you.,3.You would be much better now if you had taken my advice. 假如你接受了我的意見，你現(xiàn)在就會好得多。 4. As Commander-i

50、n-Chief of the armed forces, I have directed that all measures be taken for our defense. 作為陸?？杖姷目偹玖?，我已下令采取一切防御措施。,Listening Practice,Enjoy the following english songs and practice the subjunctive mood. Because I love you Shoulda woulda coulda,Oral Practice,Suppose tomorrow was Teachers Day. You wan

51、ted very much to celebrate it for your middle school teacher，but you would be very busy then. What would you do then? Talk over your planning with your partners. Whenever you have difficulties with grammar，do consult with your partners.,Writing Practice,First, write a short Passage with the title “

52、If I were Bill Gates” in15 minutes. Then, exchange your work with your partner and point out the grammatical errors in the writing for each other. Finally, corret the errors in your own writing . Pay attention to the usage of the subjunctive mood in it.,第二講,情態(tài)動詞,modal verb,Olympics: He believes rowe

53、rs could have done better.,A gold and two bronze is an amazing achievement but I think all of us would agree that if everything went our way we could have gone better, he said.,情態(tài)動詞的特征 情態(tài)動詞（modal verb)表示說話人的語氣或情態(tài)。情態(tài)動詞本身雖有詞義，但不完全，不能單獨作謂語動詞，只能和不帶to的動詞不定式連用，一起構(gòu)成謂語動詞。情態(tài)動詞沒有人稱和數(shù)的變化。,2.1 情態(tài)動詞的現(xiàn)在完成式的用法 情態(tài)動

54、詞現(xiàn)在完成式主要有兩個功能： 表已經(jīng)發(fā)生的情況和表示虛擬語氣。,在這兩個方面must/mustnt; can/cant; need/neednt;may/maynt;might/mightnt; should/shouldnt；ought to等情態(tài)動詞完成式表示的意思是有一定區(qū)別的,2.1.1表示已經(jīng)發(fā)生的情況。 1）must have+過去分詞，表示對已發(fā)生情況的肯定推測，譯為“（昨天）一定”。,如： My pain_ apparent the moment I walked into the room, for the first man I met asked sympathetica

55、lly：“ Are you feeling all right?” A must be B had been C must have been D had to be,2）cant / couldnt have+過去分詞，表示對已發(fā)生情況的否定推測，譯為“（昨天）一定沒”。,如： Mary _ my letter; otherwise she would have replied before now. A couldnt have received B ought to have received C has received D shouldnt have received,3）may /

56、 might have +過去分詞，表示對已發(fā)生的事情做不肯定、可能性很小的推測，或事實上根本沒發(fā)生，譯為“也許”。,如: At Florida Powers Crystal River plant, a potentially serious leakage of radioactive water may have been unknowingly caused by an electrician.,2.1.2表示虛擬語氣 1) neednt have + 過去分詞，表示做了不必做的事，相當(dāng)于”didnt need to do”,譯為“其實沒必要”。,如： You neednt have

57、come over yourself. As it turned out to be a small house party, we _ so formally. A neednt dress up B did not need have dressed up C did not need dress up D neednt have dressed up,2）should have +過去分詞，表示應(yīng)該做某事但實際上未做，譯為“本應(yīng)該”；should not + have過去分詞表示本不應(yīng)該做某事但實際上做了，譯為“本不應(yīng)該”。,如： I regret having left the wor

58、k unfinished; I should have planned everything ahead carefully. 我本來應(yīng)該事先認(rèn)真地把每件事情規(guī)劃的很好，但實際上作者還是沒有規(guī)劃好，以至工作沒有完成。,3) ought to have +過去分詞，表示動作按理該發(fā)生了，但實際上未發(fā)生，譯“該”，與should 的完成式含義類似。,如： The porter ought to have called the fire-brigade as soon as he saw the fire in the stock, which went up in smoke .,4) could

59、 have +過去分詞，表示過去本來可以做但卻未做，譯為“完全可以”。這點與ought/should/ have +過去分詞用法相似。,如： What you said is right, but you could have phrased it more tactfully.,5) may/ might have +過去分詞，表示過去可以做但實際未做，譯為“（那樣）也許會”,如： It might have been better to include more punchy statistics and photos of equipment in the introduction to further assist first-time office aut