英語委婉語在社會文化心理中的映射.doc

外國語學院畢 業(yè) 論 文 論文題目：英語委婉語在社會文化心理中的映射學生姓名：余 鵬 學 號：042723031專 業(yè)：英 語 方 向：英語語言文學指導教師：潘 登 2008年5月18日English Euphemisms in Social Cultural PsychologyA ThesisSubmitted in Partial Fulfillment of the RequirementsFor the B. A. Degree in English Language and LiteratureBy Yu PengUndergraduate ProgramSchool of Foreign LanguagesXianning University Supervisor: 潘 登 Signature _ApprovedMay 2008原創(chuàng)性聲明本人鄭重聲明：所呈交的學位論文，是本人在導師的指導下，獨立進行研究工作所取得的成果。除文中已經注明引用的內容外，本論文不含任何其他個人或集體已經發(fā)表或撰寫過的作品成果。對本文的研究做出重要貢獻的個人和集體，均已在文中以明確方式標明。本人完全意識到本聲明的法律結果由本人承擔。 學位論文作者簽名： 2008年 5月4 日學位論文版權使用授權書本學位論文作者完全了解學校有關保障、使用學位論文的規(guī)定，同意學校保留并向有關學位論文管理部門或機構送交論文的復印件和電子版，允許論文被查閱和借閱。本人授權省級優(yōu)秀學士學位論文評選機構將本學位論文的全部或部分內容編入有關數(shù)據庫進行檢索，可以采用影印、縮印或掃描等復制手段保存和匯編本學位論文。本學位論文屬于1、保密，在_年解密后適用本授權書。2、不保密。 （請在以上相應方框內打“”） 作者簽名： 年 月 日 導師簽名： 年 月 日CONTENTS1. Introduction12. The Reflections of English Euphemisms from Social Cultural Psychology33. Psychological Factors of Euphemisms43.1 Evasion psychology43.1.1 Taboo43.1.2 Comfortable words53.2 Politeness psychology53.3 Cosmetic psychology64. The Different Social Values of Euphemisms75. Conclusion8Bibliography10Acknowledgements 11咸寧學院本科畢業(yè)論文：英語委婉語在社會文化心理中的映射The Reflections of English Euphemisms in Social Cultural Psychology學 生： 余 鵬指導教師：潘 登 單 位： 外國語學院摘要：委婉語從它誕生的那一天就帶上了鮮明的社會心理標記,擔負著潤滑交際的重任。其產生主要歸因于不同的社會心理,如忌諱禮貌以及政治需要的偽裝或掩飾。委婉語可以說是社會文化心理的一面鏡子,折射出形形色色的社會心理狀態(tài),本文從社會文化心理里的角度來簡要闡述隨著社會的發(fā)展,英語委婉語所映射的交際功能及其各種社會價值觀念。關鍵詞：委婉語;禁忌語;社會文化心理;社會價值Abstract：Euphemism, which brings a sharp social and psychological marker since its birth，charges with the heavy responsibility of Lubrication Communication. Its application is attributed mainly to different social psychology, such as taboo, politeness or political purpose out of disguise. Euphemism is like a mirror reflecting social psychology of various kinds relevant to social issues in different respects. With the development of society, this thesis analyzes the application of euphemisms and the reflections of communication function in English from the angle of social cultural psychology, as well as the variable views of value concepts.Key Words: euphemism; taboo; social cultural psychology; social values1. Introduction Language is a mirror of social life and human development. In the vocabulary of any language, one finds a focused reflection of the national culture concerned. Euphemism, which is a kind of linguistic variation as well as a social cultural phenomenon, is the product of the interaction between linguistic variables and social variables. Euphemism, derived from Greek, with “eu” as a prefix meaning “well” or “sounding well” and “phemism” meaning “speech”, thus the word originally bears the meaning of “to speak with good words or in a pleasant manner”. Historically, euphemism originated in the accounts of taboo by many adventurers and anthropologists. In early 1580s, the British writer George Blunt first used the words “euphemism” and gave it a definition as “a good or favorable interpretation of a bad word.” Mencken, the American linguist, wrote a book The American Language in 1936, which devoted a part to the analysis of hundreds English euphemism on the basis of American has society and historical cultural background. In 1981, Hugh Rawson, a British linguist, compiled a dictionary named A Dictionary of Euphemism and Other Double-talk, whose preface is very valuable because of its extensive discussion of the definition, classification, features and domains of euphemism. The year 1983 saw the publication of another classic on euphemism: Kind Words-A Thesaurus of Euphemisms, compiled by American scholars Neaman and Silver, which supplied detailed interpretation of the euphemized items, and at the same time describe the original, development of euphemism. In 1985, D. J. Enright published a book Fair of Speech, the Use of Euphemism, which is a collection of many pieces of essays concerning this topic, each only discussing the use of euphemism in one specific domain. This book provides some clues for the study of euphemism thoroughly. From the seventies to the eighties in the 20th century, western theory of sociolinguistics was introduces into China in succession. Inspired by the newly introduced theory, some Chinese scholars began to study euphemism in the perspective of social functions. The most famous of them was Chen Yuan，who published a book Sociolinguistics in 1983, devoting a special chapter to the study and analysis of euphemism, which not only discussed the historical and social background of euphemism, but also revealed the nature of this social phenomenon. Euphemism is a proper language style that people pursue in social communication in order to reach an ideal communication effect. Euphemism can avoid and soften taboos and sensitive or awkward topics. In every stage and each nation, euphemisms are widely adopted. Thus, the creation and usage of euphemism is a common phenomenon in human language. To have a more scientific study of euphemism, it is necessary to take social and cultural factor into account and regard euphemism as a dynamic linguistic phenomenon. When dealing with euphemisms, we should watch out culture-loaded words and expressions, and avoid making mistakes that would cause “cultural shock”. This consciousness would help us to “Do as the Romans do” in an environment of foreign cultures that are gradually assimilated in the “big forge” of the world. The advantage of the thesis is conspicuous. It is a systematic study on euphemism from new angle, the sociolinguistic perspective, based on articles carried in journals and books. This thesis has made a tentative study of euphemisms. Euphemism has been widely use in all aspect of social life. Its application is attributed mainly to different social psychology, such as taboo, politeness, or political purpose out of disguise. With the development of society, this thesis analyzes the application of euphemisms and the reflections of communication function in English from the angle of social cultural psychology, as well as the variable views of value. As a linguistic phenomenon and more a sociolinguistic one, can reflect in some way the interactions between language and society. With an aim of achieving as a better understanding of the connotation of the euphemism we can explore the psychology of the westerners and their values.2. The Reflections of Euphemisms from Social Cultural Psychology As we known, language is an integral part of culture. It is the primary vehicle by which a culture transmits its beliefs, values and norms. Euphemism is heavily culture-bound since its birth, because it is used in certain community and is influenced by social-culture factors, thus, it is heavily marked with social-culture features. “Euphemism can reflect the general and special features of society, social values, morality and the nationality and universal feature of culture”(Peng Wenzhao,1999). To understand a euphemism, we should have some knowledge of its corresponding culture of the nation and society. Only through the mirror of culture can we exactly and clearly understand and learn about euphemisms. When we study a culture, it is not enough to merely learn the knowledge of a language and behavioral norms, as Steinmetz, Bush and Joseph-Goldfare (1994) point out:“studying culture does not mean looking only at customs, institutions, and artifacts, but also studying peoples values, beliefs, and attitudes and how they influence or are influence or are influenced by interaction among people. Culture should be studied as a process as well as a product (1994:12). Language reflects cultural and euphemism is a mirror of culture, reflecting social psychology of various kinds relevant to social issues in different respects. The words and expresses of English reflect the English speakers attitude, facts beliefs ideas, values and knowledge in communication. From diverse angles, the features of the application of English euphemism are revealed. According to the cultural view, language reflects culture and euphemism is a mirror of different cultures. This has been a topic of much interest for contrastive linguists, many of whom focus on differences of euphemisms in different languages. As is believed by many sociologists, taboo is a common cultural phenomenon in all languages and it serves as the main psychological base of euphemism. But because of different cultural background in different nations, domains of taboo are not exactly the same in all languages; hence, scope of euphemism is varied. Verbal communication is a vital means to hold social relationship together and lubricate interpersonal relationship. When using English euphemism, it is unavoidable to bring about some troubles in information communication, in order to express exactly and ensure the speed of communication accurately, euphemism prevents offensive and is an inauthentic means of expression, it allows one to speak about mild words or indirect words for one considered to be too harsh or blunt when referring to something unpleasant or embarrassing. So, it is essential to give more attention to the cultures to remove the obstacle in communication between different languages.3. Psychological Factors of EuphemismsEuphemism is a social and a psychological product as well. We often say euphemism also motivated by communicators psychology. Although euphemism does not the only has the nature of class, distract and times, in a sense reflects peoples ideas views and ethics of a country. Many factors of social of psychology may account for euphemism, but the few are the most essential reflections in social cultural psychology: evasion psychology, politeness psychology, cosmetic psychology. These three aspects, they also reflect the communicative function of English euphemism.3.1 Evasion psychology3.1.1 Taboo Taboo is the main factor of the origin of euphemism. The word “taboo” derives from Polynesian. This phenomenon is called “taboo” by the Polynesians, which means “holy” or “untouchable”. It was introduced into English in the century by Captain James Cook. Taboo and euphemism are two closely related cultural and linguistic phenomenon of human society. As Robert Burchfield wrote in Fair of Speech: The Uses of Euphemism(1985), “a language without euphemisms would be a defective instrument of communication”. Every culture in the world, there are many taboos in every society. The word “taboo” was brought to sociology and anthropology as a special noun for this special phenomenon. It is interpreted as one way in which a society expresses its disapproval of certain kinds of behavior which are considered to be harmful to its members either for supernatural reasons or because such behavior is hired to violate a moral code. The primitives were often confronted with baffling and threatening situations and phenomena, such as death, and they failed to understand the essence of them. To find a way out, they became superstitious about supernatural power, or the existence of devils and gods. In their mind, everything was alive with spirit, capable of bringing down blessings and misfortune, and thus language took upon a kind of supernatural sense. We can conclude that the original reasons for euphemism are fear and desire to placate the mysterious forces the rule the universe. Ancient people, in particular, felt that death was extremely awful and unearthly. For instance, death is an inevitable stage at the end of lifes journey. In every time, death euphemism is preferred to soften the shock of reality. In English, there are terms like: go, depart, depart from the world forever, decease, pass away, breath ones last, go the way of all flesh etc. Mankinds desire to forget the process of aging that leads inevitably to death is the source of a number of “kind words” that have made the stages and roles of life seem more bearable. In English culture, old means uselessness; it means that this groups of people cannot contribute a lot to their society, and only get the materials and the penalty from society , the old people did not like that description of themselves, and likes aged or aging not much more; soon they came to be called the elderly. “Even this euphemism seems unduly doddering, so we were treated to senior citizen and golden age, and old woman keep their chins up by calling themselves nature.” (by William Safire). Bing old is an unpleasant thing. Especially to the aged women, they are sensitive to the words middle age replacing by of a certain age. In a broad sense, taboo exists in all known cultures, referring to certain acts object so relationship which the society wishes to avoid. Allan and Burridge pointed the purpose of using euphemisms by saying, “Euphemism is characterized by avoidance language and evasive expression; that is, speaker uses words as a protective shield against the anger or disapproval of natural or supernatural beings.”(Allan and Burridge, 1991:30). According to them euphemism functions have positive connotations and avoid many negative connotations.3.1.2 Comfortable words Comfortable words are another factor of euphemism. In recent years, more and more English euphemisms are being used in talking about social life and social affairs. Because in western countries, most people hold that people with different occupation have different status in society. English euphemisms are used to express some occupation titles. The positive euphemism includes the many fancy occupation titles, which save the egos of workers by elevating their status. The names of some professions can be very misleading. For example: garbage collectors for sanitary engineer, dry-cleaner for dry cleaning engineer, housewife for domestic engineer, hairdresser for beautician, maid for domestic-help. In addition, there are also many euphemisms about poor, bothering American society. poor for needy, disadvantaged under privileged, deprived, because for one thing, it is easy to enrage others by using poor directly, for another it seems that someone is looked downed upon by using poor. This kind of comfortable words are apt to satisfy the hearer and make themselves more enjoyable and acceptable so as to ease or remove the unpleasant and embarrassment cause by hearing the true, direct expression.3.2 Politeness PsychologyPoliteness is also an essential psychology foundation for euphemism. Politeness is showing awareness of another public self-image or awareness of others expectation that their public self-image will be respect. It plays a very important role in social interaction and conversation. Leech (1983) in his Principle of Pragmatics, proposed the Politeness Principle (PP), in his proposal, he gives six maxims and each maxim consists of two sub-maxims. According to Leech (1983:107), tact Maxim is “one kind of politeness” and “perhaps the most important kind of politeness in English-speaking society”. PP show respect for the speaker and listeners, we know the purpose of social interaction is to promote the friendship between the listeners not to fight or quarrel with each other. The ritual function of euphemism conceal the fact of some sensitive and un pleasant topics, When mentioning the place for body elimination process, euphemistic expression like comfort station lavatory washroom bathroom etc. And excretory activities such as answer natures call to go to toilets, restroom to wash ones hands to relieve oneself etc. When speaking to the public, they may say “Excuse me, I must pay the call of nature.” In modern society, euphemisms are produced to conceal or remove its particular embarrassments and its unsolved problems, the English pregnancy euphemism“have a little tax reduction”is a reflection of tax system. There are many expression such as, she has canceled all her social engagements; she is in an interesting condition; she is in a family way. The coming of the new born child means one more dependents on the familys tax form. The notion for looking to the time of birth provides key pregnancy such as to be expecting a baby, be to an expectant mother .etc. Euphemism has the duty to lubricate our communication, and help establish a good relationship between human beings and even strengthen the social stability.3.3 Cosmetic PsychologyCosmetic psychology refers to using good words and sound words to beautify things which are not beautiful or decent in reality. This kind of euphemism is usually used by the government and the military, etc. Politics is a fertile area for the growth of euphemisms, which are cosmetic in expression but deceptive in nature. The cosmetic euphemism can be easily found in American English, governments discussion of the Vietnam War was stated with euphemisms, villages were burned and the inhabitants imprisoned, which was called pacification by American government, and the war itself is not a war but a conflict. It is obvious destroying crops but deceived as defoliation. There is a book about composition which is according to the identity of the speaker making the values as following judgment: “It is obvious that those euphemisms used by the ordinary people are meant to soften harsh reality ,but those used by politicians may aim at deceiving the public”(by Philip Howard,2003) . The use of such political euphemisms helps government beautify the actual, and prevents people from taking any anti-government action. For example, slums is expressed as sub-standard housing. There are no poor children in school, only children unable to secure much beyond