土地管理專(zhuān)業(yè)英語(yǔ)2-譚淑豪主編.doc

Concepts of Land Economics Raleigh Barlowe. Land resource economics,1986Like most fields，land economics has several specialized concepts and terms that must be understood if they are to be useful as tools of analysis These terms are introduced and explained in the chapters that followAt this point，emphasis is given to four basic ideas：（1）the economic concept of land and land resources，（2）a classification of land uses by type，（3）the concept of land usecapacity，and（4）the concept of highest and best use與大多數(shù)研究領(lǐng)域一樣，土地經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)也有若干專(zhuān)門(mén)概念和術(shù)語(yǔ)作為分析工具，必須弄懂它們是否有用。這些概念大多在以后各個(gè)章節(jié)里將作介紹和解釋。在這里，只重點(diǎn)講四個(gè)基本的土地經(jīng)濟(jì)概念：（1）土地和土地資源的經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)概念，（2）土地利用分類(lèi)，（3）土地利用能力的概念，（4）最高層次或最佳土地用途概念。Economic concept of land 土地的經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)概念 The term land suggests different things to different people, depending on their outlook and their interests at the moment1 In its most widely accepted use，this term refers to the solid portion of the earths surfaceBut it may also apply to a nation，a people，or a political division of the earths surfacePeople often refer to ground，soil，or earth as land and speak of land as something on which they can walk，build a house，plant a garden，or grow a cropThese commonly accepted definitions of land should not be confused with the more technical concepts use by lawyers and economists. 2 土地這一術(shù)語(yǔ)對(duì)不同的人有不同的含義，這取決于人們?cè)诋?dāng)時(shí)所持的觀點(diǎn)和利益取向。就廣義而言，這一術(shù)語(yǔ)是指地球表面的固態(tài)部分，但也可以指地球上的某個(gè)國(guó)家，民族或政治區(qū)域。人們往往把地面、土壤或泥土視為土地，或者把土地說(shuō)成是人們可以在上面行走、建房開(kāi)辟花園或者種植莊稼的東西。這些為人們普遍接受的土地概念，不要同律師和經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家所使用的專(zhuān)門(mén)術(shù)語(yǔ)相混淆。 From a legal standpoint，land or real estate may be considered as any portion of the earths surface over which ownership rights might be exercised These rights relate not just to surface area but also to things such as trees，which are attached to the surface by nature；to buildings and other improvements attached by man；and to those objects of value that lie either above or below the surface從法律角度看，土地或不動(dòng)產(chǎn)可以視為可以行使所有權(quán)的地球表面任何部分。這些權(quán)利不僅同地球表層面積有關(guān)，而且同樹(shù)木等自然地附著于土地上的東西，同房屋和其他設(shè)施等人為著附于土地上的東西以及同那些地上或地下等有價(jià)值的東西有關(guān)。 Because of their concern over distinctions between land and capital，economists often differ in their opinions regarding the natural of land. Many economists accept broad definitions similar to those used by lawyers; others treat certain aspects of this broad concept as capital. 3 For our purposes，the economic concept of land can be viewed as being synonymous with the legal concept of real estate. It involves the natural and man-made resources that individuals,groups,or communities control through possession of portions of the earths surface由于經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家關(guān)心土地和資本的區(qū)別，所以他們對(duì)土地的性質(zhì)往往有不同的觀點(diǎn)。許多經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家贊成律師們所使用的廣義土地定義；而另一些經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家則是把這種廣義的土地視為資本。按照我們的觀點(diǎn)，土地的經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)概念可以看作于與不動(dòng)產(chǎn)的法律概念基本相似，它是受個(gè)人、組織或者團(tuán)體控制的附著于地球表面的、自然和人工資源的總和”。 This broad concept of land includes all of the earth surface-water and ice as well as groundIn addition to building sites，farm soil, growing forests，mineral deposits，and water resources，it also involves such natural phenomena as access to sunlight，rain, wind，and changing temperatures and location with respect to markets and other areasMoreover，it includes all those man-made improvements that are attached to the surface of the earth and cannot be easily separated it. 4土地的這種廣義概念，包括了整個(gè)地球表層，即水和冰以及地面。除了建筑場(chǎng)地、農(nóng)用地、林木、礦藏和水資源外，土地還包括一些自然現(xiàn)象，如太陽(yáng)輻射、降雨、風(fēng)和不斷變化的溫度，以及相對(duì)于市場(chǎng)和其他地方的位置。再者，它還包括了附著于地球表面不能預(yù)知分離的所有那些人為的改良設(shè)施。Concepts of land 土地的概念 The term land often means different things depending upon the context in which it is used and the circumstances under which it is consideredLike a cut diamond，it has many facetsMost important among these are the views of land as(1) space，(2)nature，(3)a factor of production，(4)a consumption good，(5) situation，(6) property，and(7) capitalOther facets of land may also he notedSome cultural groups view land as a deity that possesses itself and that can exercise certain controls over the people who use itInvestors sometimes see it as a store of wealth that possesses unique advantages over alternative areas of investment. Others have viewed it as a gene bank a potential source of new species and products and as a source of pleasure and recreation. 5 土地一詞往往有不同的含義，這取決于所使用的環(huán)境和內(nèi)容。如同一塊切割過(guò)的鉆石，有許多方面。在這所有觀點(diǎn)眾人們主要把土地視為1）空間，2）自然界。3）一種生產(chǎn)要素，4）一種消費(fèi)品，5）位置，6）財(cái)產(chǎn)，7）資本。土地含義的其他方面也要注意。有些文化組織將土地看作自我擁有的，掌控著使用這片土地的人們的神。投資者有時(shí)把選擇投資的具有特殊優(yōu)勢(shì)的土地看作財(cái)富倉(cāng)庫(kù)。還有一些人把土地看作產(chǎn)生新物種和新產(chǎn)品源的基因庫(kù)或者將土地看作休閑游樂(lè)源泉。 Considerable importance is attached in the modern world to the concept of land as situation. 6 This concept involves location with respect to markets, geographic features，others resources，and other countriesIt is significant because the value and use of land is determined largely by its location and accessibility and also because of the economic and political significance that is often attributed to the control of strategic sites現(xiàn)代社會(huì)，人們非常重視作為位置的土地概念。這一概念指相對(duì)市場(chǎng)、地理特征、其他資源以及其他區(qū)域的位置。這一概念很重要，這不僅由于多數(shù)土地的利用和價(jià)值由其位置和可達(dá)性來(lái)決定的，還因?yàn)閼?zhàn)略地點(diǎn)的控制對(duì)現(xiàn)代經(jīng)濟(jì)和政治的重要意義。The concept of land as property involves real estate and has legal connotations. It is concerned with the areas over which individuals, groups, or sovereign powers exercise rights of possession and use and with the nature of the rights and responsibilities they hold. 7 Property institutions change with time，but the interpretations accepted at any given moment always wield a powerful influence in shaping attitudes and actions concerning land and how it can or should be used.作為財(cái)產(chǎn)的土地概念，指不動(dòng)產(chǎn)并具有法律含義。將土地當(dāng)作財(cái)產(chǎn)意味著支配土地的個(gè)人、組織或者君主自這片土地上可以行使占有權(quán)和使用權(quán)，也包含著他們擁有的土地權(quán)利和責(zé)任的性質(zhì)。財(cái)產(chǎn)制度隨著時(shí)間推移而變化，但是，某個(gè)時(shí)期流行的制度總是對(duì)人們的土地的觀念和所采取的行動(dòng)以及可以或應(yīng)該怎樣利用土地有著重大影響。While land may be treated as a unique and separate factor of production，it is often realistic to view it as a type of capital. The early classical economists argued that land was a free gift of nature, whereas capital was man-made. 8 Capital represented past savings and store-up production and was expendable，whereas land was seen as durableThese distinctions have some validity but tend to break down and blend together when they are applied in twilight casesOne might ask，for instance，if one field is land because its owner settled on productive soils while a second is capital because the owner started with poor soil and built up a productive farm unitSimilarly，one may question how free land actually is and how durable soil, forest, and mineral resources are in comparison with capital goods. 9 These problems have led many economists to regard land as a species of capital，while others assert that space and situation are the only singular characteristics of land盡管土地經(jīng)常被視為生產(chǎn)的一個(gè)獨(dú)立要素，把它看作一種類(lèi)型的資本還是合適的。這是由于土地和資本之間有著密切的關(guān)系。按照早期古典經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家的觀點(diǎn)，人們可以說(shuō)土地是自然界的免費(fèi)恩賜，而資本去是人為的，是過(guò)去的積累和生產(chǎn)積累的結(jié)果，是有限的易耗品；土地則是取之不盡用之不竭的耐用品。這些區(qū)分有一定道理，當(dāng)它們用于邊緣地方或交叉情形時(shí)，他們通常分開(kāi)而后合在一起。例如，人們可能要問(wèn)，有沒(méi)有這樣一種情形，一個(gè)農(nóng)場(chǎng)只有土地，因?yàn)樵撧r(nóng)場(chǎng)主居住在一塊很肥沃的土地上，而另一個(gè)農(nóng)場(chǎng)就是資本，因?yàn)樵撧r(nóng)場(chǎng)主從極貧瘠的土地上建起了卓有成效的農(nóng)場(chǎng)。同樣，有人或許要問(wèn)與其他資本產(chǎn)品相比土地的免費(fèi)程度如何，以及土壤、森林和礦產(chǎn)資源的耐用性到底如何。這種問(wèn)題的實(shí)質(zhì)使得許多經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家將土地視為一種資本，而另一些人則堅(jiān)持只有空間和位置才是土地的唯一特征。Whether land should be clearly separated from capital is an academic issue and has little bearing on the issues considered hereSuffice it to say that the characteristics of land can be similar to those of capital，Land may be fixed in quantity，durable in nature，and a naturesupplied good from the standpoint of society； but the average investor sees it as a resource that must be purchased or leased like other capital goodsIn this sense, land is capital to the individual even though it may be viewed differently from the standpoint of society. 10 土地是否能與資本截然分開(kāi)，這樣的問(wèn)題是一個(gè)學(xué)術(shù)問(wèn)題，但這里并不討論這個(gè)問(wèn)題。因?yàn)檎f(shuō)一句土地的特征與資本的特征相似就足夠了。土地在數(shù)量上是有限的，實(shí)質(zhì)上是耐用的，從社會(huì)角度來(lái)講又是一種“無(wú)價(jià)之物”，但對(duì)一般投資者來(lái)說(shuō)土地可以買(mǎi)賣(mài)或出租，如同其他資本產(chǎn)品一樣。在這種含義上，土地對(duì)個(gè)人是一種資本，即使從社會(huì)角度有不同的看法。 Land resourcesBecause of occasional confusion and lack of agreement regarding the precise meaning of the term land when applied in economics，it is often desirable to speak of land resources or real estate rather than landWith this substitution of terms, it is possible to clarify the general meaning of this central concept and at the time avoid quibbling over details. 11 As used here, the concepts of land resources and real estate are treated as roughly comparable to the economic concept of landThese terms are used interchangeably throughout with no distinction in meaningThe first two terms are concepts representing a merging of the economic and legal concepts of land and definitely Include buildings and other capital improvements attached to the land as well as he natural characteristics of land由于對(duì)于經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)中使用“土地”一詞的嚴(yán)格含義時(shí)?；煜碗y以達(dá)到概念上的統(tǒng)一，因此，人們往往用土地資源或不動(dòng)產(chǎn)而不用土地一詞。通過(guò)術(shù)語(yǔ)的更替，就可以將這個(gè)關(guān)鍵概念總的含義弄清楚了，同時(shí)又避免了在細(xì)節(jié)上爭(zhēng)執(zhí)不休。在這里所使用的土地資源和不動(dòng)產(chǎn)這兩個(gè)概念，可以大致等同于土地的經(jīng)濟(jì)概念。這兩個(gè)概念表示了土地的經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)概念和法律概念間的相互交疊，他們包括建筑物和其他附著與土地之上的資本改良設(shè)施以及土地的自然屬性。As a descriptive term in economics，land resources is both broader and narrower than the term natural resourcesIt is broader because it includes the man-made improvements that are attached to landNatural resources can involve a broader concept in that it includes all naturegiven resources from the center of the earth to the highest heavens, whereas the term land resources，when treated as an economics concept, is limited to surface together with the thin layer of subsurface and supra-surface resources that people use in their daily lives. 12作為土地經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)中的描述性術(shù)語(yǔ)，“土地資源”比“自然資源”的含義既廣又窄。說(shuō)之廣是由于“土地資源”包括所有附著于土地之上的人為改良設(shè)施?！白匀毁Y源”可以有較廣的含義，如它包括自地核到天體的所有自然所賦資源。而土地資源在作為一個(gè)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)概念時(shí)，只限于地表資源和薄薄的地表層之下以及地表層之上人們可以在日常生活中利用的資源。 Principal types of land use Various classification schemes can be used to describe the principal types of land use found throughout the world. One of the more workable and more inclusive of these calls for the following tenfold classification of land uses 13：Residential lands，commercial and industrial sites，cropland，pasture and grazing land，forestland，mineral land，recreation land，transportation lands，service areas，and barren and waste. 可以用許多分類(lèi)方法來(lái)劃分世界上土地利用主要類(lèi)型。其中一種比較合乎實(shí)際且具有較高概括性的分類(lèi)方法，將土地利用分為十個(gè)類(lèi)型：住宅用地，工商業(yè)用地，耕地，林地。牧場(chǎng)和放牧地，礦業(yè)用地，娛樂(lè)用地，交通用地，服務(wù)性用地，裸露的和荒蕪的土地。Residential lands and commercial and industrial sites account for most of the land area of cities but cover only a small proportion of the earths surfaceThese uses and their various subclasses are particularly important in the modern world because they represent the areas where threefourths of the residents of the developed nations and almost a third of those of the development countries live and where most economic activity takes placeThey involve the areas most subject to intensive human use and the sites of highest market value. 14居住區(qū)和工商業(yè)用地占城區(qū)面積的絕大部份，但只是地球表面的一個(gè)很小的部分。這些利用方式及其各亞類(lèi)在當(dāng)今世界特別重要，因?yàn)樗鼈兇砹私^大多數(shù)人，世界上四分之三發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家的居民和三分之一的發(fā)展中國(guó)家的居民生活和工作的場(chǎng)所，以及最重要的經(jīng)濟(jì)活動(dòng)發(fā)生的地方。這些土地包括了大部分人類(lèi)集約利用的土地和最高價(jià)值的區(qū)域。Because of their contributions to agricultural production，the next three classifications are often grouped together as agricultural usesThese uses account for most of the worlds surface land area that has economic value. 15 Cropland includes the cultivated areas used in the production of food, feed，fibers，and other cropsAs a land use concept，it includes not only cropland harvested but also planted areas that suffer from crop failure and cropland areas that temporarily idle or fallow. 16接下來(lái)的三種用途，由于它們主要對(duì)農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)而言，所以往往歸為農(nóng)業(yè)用地。這三類(lèi)土地利用類(lèi)型占有經(jīng)濟(jì)價(jià)值的總面積的絕大部分。耕地包括所有用于生產(chǎn)食物、纖維和其他作物的土地。作為土地利用的概念，耕地不僅包括收獲面積而且還包括無(wú)收獲的種植面積，以及暫時(shí)撂荒和休閑的耕地部分。 Aside from the residual class of barren and waste lands，most of the remaining types of land use may be grouped together as specialuse areasMineral lands vary from open-pit sources of coal or iron ore to the much smaller surface areas required to support the operation of oil wells and underground mines. 17 Recreation lands include parks, beaches, resort areas, racetracks, game preserves, and open space and scenic areas that are used largely for recreation and closely related purposes. Transportation lands include those areas used for highways，streets，alleys，parking purposes，railroads，airports，harbors，and wharvesThe concept of service areas overlaps that of other specialuse areas but applies specifically to uses such as military reservation，prisons，cemeteries，reservoirs，and hydropower sites. 除了荒地和農(nóng)業(yè)用地之外，其他類(lèi)型的土地利用可以歸結(jié)為特殊用途。礦區(qū)有露天煤礦和鐵礦，以及為進(jìn)行操作只要求很小的表面積的油井和地下礦井。娛樂(lè)用地包括公園，海濱，度假勝地，賽車(chē)跑道，禁獵區(qū)，以及多用于娛樂(lè)及相關(guān)用途的開(kāi)放空間和風(fēng)景區(qū)。交通用地包括用作高速公路，街道，街巷，停車(chē)場(chǎng)，鐵路，機(jī)場(chǎng)，港口和碼頭的土地。服務(wù)用地的概念和其他特殊用地有交叉，指專(zhuān)門(mén)用于軍事保留區(qū)，鑒于，目的，水庫(kù)和發(fā)電站的用地。Clearcut classifications of land uses are often complicated by the complementary nature of many uses and by overlapping and multipleuse patternsTracts used primarily for single uses such as cropland，forestry，or industries often contain areas utilized for necessary complementary purposes such as roads，parking，or service usesSites also may be used simultaneously for more than one purpose Large areas in the western United States，for example，are designated as forestlands but at the same time have important values for grazing，recreation，and watershed usessimilarly，a site occupied by a hotel maybe used primarily for residential purposed but at the same time provide commercial，recreation，transportation，and service facilities 要嚴(yán)格區(qū)分出不同的土地利用類(lèi)型通常是很復(fù)雜的，因?yàn)槎喾N用途的互補(bǔ)性，交叉利用和多種利用方式的存在。單一類(lèi)型的用地，主要用于耕地，森林，工業(yè)的土地凈產(chǎn)還會(huì)有道路，停車(chē)場(chǎng)服務(wù)用地作為必要的輔助功能用地。土地也可以同時(shí)用作幾種用途。比如，在美國(guó)西部的指定為林業(yè)用地的大塊土地同時(shí)也作為重要的放牧、休閑和庫(kù)區(qū)用地。同樣，一個(gè)旅館的占地可以用作居住，同時(shí)又可以提供商業(yè)、娛樂(lè)、運(yùn)輸和服務(wù)設(shè)施。Highest and best use 最高最佳利用Most land areas are suited for a variety of usesThe highly valued land found in most central business districts could be used for forestry，grazing，crop production，or residential purposes as well as tor commercial usesIt is used as it is，however，because owners have an economic incentive to use their land resources for those purposes that promise them the highest returnIn this respect they allocate their land resources in accordance with the concept of highest and best use多數(shù)土地適宜多種用途。中心商務(wù)區(qū)的價(jià)值高的土地可以用于森林，放牧，耕地，居住或者商業(yè)等用途。然而，之所以用作它現(xiàn)在的用途，是因?yàn)橥恋厮姓呲呌趯⑵渫恋亟o予經(jīng)濟(jì)動(dòng)機(jī)用于最高收益的用途。從這個(gè)角度來(lái)說(shuō)，土地所有者使用他們的土地是遵循最高最佳使用原則的。 Land resources are at their highest and best use when they are used in a manner that provides an optimum return to their operators or to society. 18 Depending on the criteria used, this return may be measured in strictly monetary term, in intangible and social values, or in some combination of these valuesReal estate is ordinarily considered at its highest and best use when it is used for that purpose or that combination of purposes for which it has the highest comparative advantage or least comparative disadvantage relative to other uses當(dāng)土地資源為其土地經(jīng)營(yíng)者或者社會(huì)提供最大收益時(shí)，土地資源處于最高最佳利用狀態(tài)。根據(jù)所選用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，這個(gè)收益可以用嚴(yán)格的貨幣單位，無(wú)形的社會(huì)價(jià)值或者這些價(jià)值的綜合來(lái)衡量。當(dāng)用于一種或多種用途的房地產(chǎn)與其他用途相比優(yōu)勢(shì)最大或者劣勢(shì)最小時(shí)，通常被看作是他的最高最佳用途。 The highest and best use of any particular site is often subject to change. 19Like the concept of use-capacity, it can shift with changes in the quality of the land resource, changes in technology, and changes in the demand picture. Sometimes it is affected by zoning ordinances and other public policiesUnder most circumstances，a certain amount of shifting can also be expected to take place in response to the bidding and counter-bidding that goes on between various operators.20任何特定地塊的最高最佳用途都會(huì)發(fā)生變化的，同土地利用能力的概念一樣，它隨土地資源質(zhì)量的改變、技術(shù)進(jìn)步的變化，需求狀況的變化而變化。有時(shí)，它受分區(qū)條例和其他公共政策的影響。多數(shù)情況下，不同經(jīng)營(yíng)者對(duì)土地利用競(jìng)價(jià)時(shí)，土地最高最佳利用狀態(tài)也可能相應(yīng)發(fā)生一定的變化 In modern society，land resources usually earn a higher return when usedfor commercial or industrial purposes than for other types of useAs a result，these uses are usually able to outbid other uses for almost any siteResidentialuses ordinarily have next priority，followed by various types of cropland，pasture, grazing，and forest usesThis simple ordering of land uses suggests a definite profile in which the highestvalue lands at the center of our cities are used for commercial purposes，while areas with successively lower values are used for residential，cropland，grazing，and forestry purposes，respectively當(dāng)今社會(huì)，土地資源用于商業(yè)或工業(yè)用途比其他用途的收益高。結(jié)果是，這些用途往往在任何地方都比其他用途出價(jià)高。居住用地往往是次優(yōu)的，緊接著依次是耕地，牧場(chǎng)，放牧地，和森林用地。這一簡(jiǎn)單的土地利用排列順序清楚地說(shuō)明城市中的高價(jià)土地被用作商業(yè)用途，而相繼價(jià)值較低的其他土地分別用作居住用地、耕地、牧草地和林地等。 Profiles of this type represent a generalized average. 21 They are never as fixed or static as they may at first appearVariations from this norm often occur of the differences found in individual type of use classes and because of the tendency of some classes to overlap. 22 Exceptions to this pattern also existSome industrial and commercial uses deliberately seek low-cost sites，and residential uses such as apartment houses occasionally outbid commercial and industrial uses for particular sitesSimilarly，in areas such as the oasis communities of the Sahara Desert，where the supply of arable land is extremely limited，residential quarters may be located on the edge of the desert while the arable land they could occupy is used for food production這種土地利用類(lèi)型的變化順序代表了一般性的狀況。他們從來(lái)不是固定的或者靜止在最初的狀態(tài)上。因?yàn)槊糠N土地利用類(lèi)型中有不同的等級(jí)，而且有些等級(jí)有重疊的趨勢(shì)。這種模式之外的情形也存在。一些工商業(yè)用地有意識(shí)的減災(zāi)成本低的地方，有些居住區(qū)如公寓在某些地段優(yōu)勢(shì)出價(jià)比商業(yè)和工業(yè)用途還高。同樣的，在一些地方，比如撒哈拉沙漠不毛之地的柳州上，耕地供給極為有限，居住區(qū)可以建在沙漠的邊緣，而為生產(chǎn)食物耕地會(huì)占據(jù)綠洲。 Though the highest and best use of a given unit of land resource at any onetime can usually be computed in monetary terms，differences of opinion frequently arise when weight is given to welfare considerations and non-monetary satisfactions. One landowner may keep a forested area as a woodlot. A successor in ownership may choose to convert it into farmland, residential lots，or possibly a public parkAn individual may feel that a lot should be retained for residential or commercial purposes, while a city may insist that part of it be given up for a street-widening projectA public spirited group may insist that a virgin forest be maintained as a public park，while other groups argue that it be cut to Provide timber for a growing nationThese examples indicate the need for differentiation between the marketplace, or economic, and the social c