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1、國際化經(jīng)營 工商企業(yè)日趨國際化，但他們中大多數(shù)不是出于戰(zhàn)略上的選擇，而是經(jīng)歷了一個緩慢的“循序漸進”的過程。有些公司開始被吸引到國際市場上來，是因為收到了找上門來的定單，在發(fā)現(xiàn)新的機會之后，通過一系列步驟走向國外建立生產(chǎn)廣家。有些公司主動進行國際經(jīng)營是為了對付寡頭賣主壟斷的威脅。還有些公司則是碰上了特殊機遇，通過在國外經(jīng)營來開發(fā)資源供應(yīng)，獲得外國技術(shù)或提高生產(chǎn)效率。許多公司在成為全球性企業(yè)的某一階段，都被生動地描繪成由一種特別關(guān)系網(wǎng)把不同國家各種各樣的公司聯(lián)系在一起的投資組合。 這些早期的經(jīng)營措施，很難說是完整的全球戰(zhàn)略的一部分。但是由于國際范圍的競爭、國家控制措施和公司日漸意識到增效利益而產(chǎn)

2、生壓力時，越來越多的公司在制定全球戰(zhàn)略，采用全球規(guī)劃程序。全球戰(zhàn)略是表示企業(yè)戰(zhàn)略的一項計劃，考慮到地理來源和地理機遇及限制，從其有限資源的地理分布中，最大限度地擴大選擇的目標。 全球戰(zhàn)略，除了包括公司如何進入新的市場、要擁有些什么和如何進行全球運作外，還包括制定規(guī)劃、選擇時機和確定公司的經(jīng)營地點和資源。合理地制定全球戰(zhàn)略，需要認真評估全球各種可選擇的方案和每個方案涉及的風(fēng)險。制訂全球戰(zhàn)略，決策者絕不要對任何國家充滿盲目性，必須先考慮到世界市場及世界資源的分布，再考慮單獨某一國家的市場和資源。全球戰(zhàn)略旨在于在多國的基礎(chǔ)上取得最大的效益，而不是把國際經(jīng)營活動當作不同國家的業(yè)務(wù)組合。 需要有一個全球

3、戰(zhàn)略的基本原因，是多數(shù)產(chǎn)品和生產(chǎn)要素市場超越了國家的界限，但最終決定經(jīng)營的競爭，并不局限在個別的地點和國家市場。因此，為了保持具有競爭性，或者變?yōu)榫哂懈偁幮?，大多?shù)公司的戰(zhàn)略范圍必須包括國內(nèi)外市場的威脅和機遇。如果國內(nèi)競爭者的視野拓寬，規(guī)模擴大，而這家公司仍舊小規(guī)模經(jīng)營，就會發(fā)現(xiàn)自己不能在研究或產(chǎn)品開發(fā)方面與他人并駕齊驅(qū)。即使國內(nèi)競爭沒有迅速擴展到其他市場，外國公司也會采取氣勢逼人的戰(zhàn)略。當日本的公司大規(guī)模地打入歐美傳統(tǒng)市場的時候，歐美許多產(chǎn)業(yè)的公司對這種競爭性的挑戰(zhàn)大都毫無準備。凡在全球戰(zhàn)略中沒有包括日本人銳意爭取的那些價格區(qū)段的汽車公司，立即在成本上處于不利地位。在摩托車工業(yè)中，把迅速增長

4、的市場拱手讓與日本競爭者的情況更為嚴重。很多著名的公司完全銷聲匿跡。 在美國市場上，取得成就會領(lǐng)先，所以美國公司過去在產(chǎn)品壽命的最初階段不必從全球的角度來考慮。由于美國人口眾多、工資率高、可自由支配的購買力大，并且勇于創(chuàng)新，美國市場多年來對許多產(chǎn)品的容納率和增長率，在世界上都是名列前茅。反過來看，美國以外的公司則從產(chǎn)品開發(fā)一開始，就需要進行全球通盤規(guī)劃。采用先進技術(shù)的英國公司、，很可能發(fā)現(xiàn)美國的需求比英國的需求增長得快。如果把英國的需求拱手讓與美國的競爭者，那么美國競爭者的銷售額和經(jīng)驗很快會超過英國公司?，F(xiàn)在美國的工資率和人均國民生產(chǎn)總值不再高出歐洲很多，也許輪到美國公司應(yīng)該按照歐洲市場的需求

5、來設(shè)計產(chǎn)品，因為在歐洲市場上銷售這些產(chǎn)品，很可能會超過美國市場。 凡是由于未能選擇最廉價的貨源而在競爭中落后的公司，都暴露出缺乏全球戰(zhàn)略思想。在其他一些情況下，企業(yè)也許已經(jīng)獲得世界市場的份額和廉價的貨源，但是這是以財政優(yōu)勢或比其外國競爭者相對靈活為代價取得的。借助于需要變動和技術(shù)變革，較小的競爭者已經(jīng)能夠超過他們。 世界上國家很多，跨國公司必須要在選擇市場時樹立優(yōu)勢，根據(jù)市場進行戰(zhàn)略評估和選擇經(jīng)營任務(wù)。必須決定戰(zhàn)略評估是根據(jù)一個主要的單一市場，許多單一市場，還是許多市場中的某些部分進行的。這家公司還要決定為負責(zé)貫徹這一戰(zhàn)略評估如何進行組織，是由總部來進行，由多國委員會來進行，還是由本國的公司來

6、進行？ 單一主要市場方法，也叫做中心市場方法。在這種方法中，公司根據(jù)一國市場選擇經(jīng)營任務(wù)，建立營銷組合，以后再擴展到其他國家的市場。這一方法減少決策問題，由于地域擴展的邊際成本低，還可以帶來高利潤。但是公司應(yīng)該選擇哪一個為中心市場呢？通常公司從國內(nèi)市場開始，但是這不一定是最好的選擇。一些日本和歐洲公司，已經(jīng)為某些有選擇的產(chǎn)品選擇了收入高和要求高的美國市場。美國的市場巨大，有利也有弊。許多歐洲人對在這樣巨大的市場上進行通訊和協(xié)調(diào)工作所需要的代價望而卻步，因此不敢把首先在美國市場上進行生產(chǎn)作為其世界產(chǎn)品戰(zhàn)略的一部分。 多元市場方法意味著高度的分散。如果當?shù)厍闆r特殊，需要比如化肥和農(nóng)藥之類的某些特殊

7、商品，大規(guī)模經(jīng)濟生產(chǎn)并不重要，公司的競爭優(yōu)勢取決于生產(chǎn)能力而不取決于先進的產(chǎn)品設(shè)計等，那么在這些情況下，多元市場方法也許是最好的戰(zhàn)略。比如對像鋁錠之類的工業(yè)產(chǎn)品，產(chǎn)品的使用方式、顧客的態(tài)度和目標客戶團體等市場特點，可能在許多國家都大致相似，因此最佳戰(zhàn)略可能是集中開發(fā)更經(jīng)濟的生產(chǎn)過程，形成具有競爭力的成本優(yōu)勢。 在細分市場方法中，企業(yè)要在國內(nèi)市場中認準那些在境外能夠受到不同對待從而獲利的細分市場。有些細分市場很小，在任何一個國家都沒有充足的理由使單一國家的企業(yè)開發(fā)適宜的產(chǎn)品或為開發(fā)市場進行必要的投資。然而，在世界范圍內(nèi)或在若干國家之中，為這一細分市場付出這樣的代價則完全是正當?shù)摹?歸根結(jié)底，全球

8、戰(zhàn)略的制訂是由管理人員的全球經(jīng)營思路決定的。全球戰(zhàn)略的設(shè)計和實施，要求總公司和子公司的管理人員，都要遵循同一全球策略，既不能視子公司為只是跟著總部指揮棒轉(zhuǎn)的附屬機構(gòu)，也不能視為是獨立的城邦，而要看作是整體的一部分，無論從全球目標還是從當?shù)氐哪繕藖碚f，都要如此。全系統(tǒng)的每一部分都發(fā)揮各自的特長，做出各自的獨特貢獻。這種方法通常被稱為“地心說”，是總公司和子公司齊心協(xié)力制訂出全球的統(tǒng)一標準，但根據(jù)各地情況允許統(tǒng)一標準略有差異，并據(jù)此做出重大決策。但是，地心說要求對子公司的管理人員實行獎勵制度，鼓勵他們?yōu)槿蚰繕伺?，而不只是僅僅為了達到本國的目標。 在國際化的企業(yè)中，總公司對子公司的定位一般有三種

9、類型：（重視本國的）民族中心主義型、（重視所在國的）多中心型和（重視全世界的）地球中心型。 民族中心主義態(tài)度的特點可以歸納為：“我們本國人比總公司和子公司中的任何外國人都優(yōu)越、可靠和值得信任?！痹谶@樣的公司里，工作標準和決策規(guī)則一般要根據(jù)本國的標準。民族中心主義是和全球戰(zhàn)略背道而馳的，因為這種方法缺少良好的反饋，并且熟悉經(jīng)營地區(qū)當?shù)厍闆r的管理人員的經(jīng)驗和看法在制定決策中得不到適當?shù)闹匾暋?多中心的公司走向另一個極端，認為當?shù)厝藢η闆r最為熟悉，他們的想法對公司總是最有利，跨國公司在所在國開設(shè)的企業(yè)在特色和做法上部應(yīng)該盡量當?shù)鼗?。這類公司更像是一個半獨立的子公司的聯(lián)合體。多中心的管理政策可能會犧牲

10、跨國經(jīng)營的大部分統(tǒng)一和增效利益。多中心主義的代價是重復(fù)勞動和對本國經(jīng)驗不能有效利用所造成的浪費。這種方法的優(yōu)點是能夠充分利用當?shù)氐馁Y源和人力，而付出的代價是犧牲全球的增長和效率。 地心主義也有代價，大部分是通訊旅行費用，由于想要對人員進行全球目標的教育和取得共識而在決策上花費的時間，以及有一個相當大的總部官僚機構(gòu)所花的費用。但是這些代價的回報卻是整個企業(yè)更加客觀的經(jīng)營，利用整個世界的資源，提高地方公司的管理水平，對全球目標更多的責(zé)任感，以及最后，但并非最不重要的一點是利潤。當然，全球型企業(yè)的成功取決于它是否有足夠的全球型的管理人員。本文摘至：richard. e. caves., manage

11、ment and administration, macmillan press ltd., 2005going internationalbusiness enterprises have become increasingly international but most of them go international by a process of creeping incremental-ism rather than by strategy choice. some firms are first attracted to foreign markets by unsolicite

12、d export orders and, after discovering new opportunities, move through a series of stages to the establishment of foreign production facilities. other firms initiate international activities in response to threats to an oligopoly position. still others respond to specific opportunities for developin

13、g supplies of resources, acquiring foreign technology, or achieving greater production efficiency through foreign operations. and at some stage of becoming a global enterprise, many firms could be best characterized as a portfolio of diverse and separate country companies tied together by a network

14、of ad hoc relationships.rarely are these early moves part of a comprehensive global strategy. but as pressures arise from competition in an international scale and from country control programs, and as firms become increasingly aware of synergistic benefits, more and more are building global strateg

15、ies and adopting global planning procedures. a global strategy is a plan expressing an enterprises strategy for maximizing its chosen objectives through geographical allocation of its limited resources, taking into account competition from whatever geographical source and the geographical opportunit

16、ies and constraints.a global strategy encompasses the planning, timing, and location of a firms activities and resources as well as its strategies for how it will enter new markets, what it will own, and how it will manage the global operation. the construction of a global strategy on a rational bas

17、is requires a careful assessment of the global alternatives and the risks involved for each. to build a global strategy, the decision maker must be free of any national blinders and consider world markets and world resource locations and now simply the markets or resources of a particular country in

18、 isolation. a global strategy aims at maximizing results on a multinational basis rather than treating international activities as a portfolio of separate country business.the basic reasons for having a global strategy are that most product and factor markets extend beyond the boundaries of a single

19、 country and the competition that ultimately determines performance is not constrained to individual locations and country markets. to remain competitive, or to become competitive, the strategy horizon for most firms must, therefore, encompass threats and opportunities of both domestic and foreign o

20、rigin. if its domestic competitors extend their horizons to include a broader scale base, the firm could find itself unable to maintain the same pace of research or product development given its smaller scales base. even where domestic competition is not moving rapidly to other markets, foreign firm

21、s may be developing strategies that pose a threat. european and u. s. firms in a number of industries were largely unprepared for the competitive challenge when the japanese firms broke into their traditional markets xn a significant scale. automotive firms that had failed to build global coverage i

22、n the price segments the japanese attacked were at an intermediate cost disadvantage. in the motorcycle industry the effects of leaving rapidly growing markets to japanese competitors were even more dramatic. many well-known firms disappeared completely.many u. s. firms did not need in the past to t

23、hink globally at the early stages of a products life because leadership coincided with achievement in the u. s. market. with its large population, high-wage rates, high discretionary spending power, and high propensity to innovate, the u-s. market was for many years the leader in adoption and growth

24、 rates for many products. conversely, firms outside the united states had more need to plan globally from the beginning of any product development. a u. k. firm introducing a technological advance was likely to find that u. s. demand grew more rapidly than u. k. demand. if u. k. demand was left to u

25、. s. competitors, the sales and experience of u. s. competitors soon outpaced that of the u. k. firm. now that u. s. wage rates and per capita gnp no longer have such a lead over europe, perhaps, u. s. firms in their turn should be designing products against european markets that might lead the unit

26、ed states in adoption of those products.absence of global thinking also shows up where firms have been left behind in the competitive race because they failed to tap the cheapest sources of supply. in still other cases, firms may have achieved global market share and cheapest supplies, but at the ex

27、pense of their financial strength or flexibility relative to foreign competitors. assisted by a fluctuation in demand or technological changes, smaller competitors have been able to overtake them.since there are so many countries in the world, the multinational firm must establish priorities for sel

28、ecting those markets against which it will make this strategic evaluation and choice of its business mission. it must decide whether strategic evaluation is carried out against one major single market, many single markets, or some segments of many markets. it must also decide how it is going to orga

29、nize the responsibility for carrying through this strategic assessment. will it be done by central headquarters, by multinational committees, or by national units?in the major single market, or central market, approach, the firm selects its mission based on one national market and establishes a mark

30、eting mix, and later expands to other national markets. this approach reduces decision problems and can bring high profits because of the low marginal cost of geographic extensions. but which central market should the firm choose? normally, the firm begins with its home market, but this may not be t

31、he best choice. some japanese and european firms have selected the high-income, sophisticated u. s. market for selected product lines. the sizes of the u. s. market have both advantages and disadvantages. many europeans see the cost of communications and coordination efforts in such a large market a

32、s a deterrent to producing products first in the united states as part of their world product strategy.the multiple market approach implies a high degree of decentralization. it may be the best strategy in situations where special local conditions require particular products, such as fertilizers and

33、 pesticides, where economies of large-scale production are not important, and where the firms competitive advantage depends upon capabilities other than advanced product design. in the case of an industrial product such as aluminum ingots, for example, the market characteristics such as product usag

34、e patterns, customer attitudes, and target customer groups may be quite similar for many countries, and the best strategy may be to focus on developing a more economical production process to bring a competitive cost advantage.in the market segment approach, the firm identifies segments of national

35、markets that could profitably be given separate treatment across national boundaries. small market segments in individual countries may be insufficient for any one country unit to justify development of an appropriate product or to make the necessary investment in market development. world-wide or f

36、or a number of countries, however, such a segment may readily justify the expense.in the last analysis, developing a global strategy depends upon the way executives think about doing business around the world. the design and implementation of a global strategy require that managers in both headquart

37、ers and subsidiaries follow a worldwide approach which considers subsidiaries as neither satellites nor independent city-states but as parts of a whole, the focus of which is on worldwide as well as local objectives. and each part of the system makes its unique contribution with its unique competenc

38、e. this approach, which has been popularized as egocentrism, involves collaboration between subsidiaries and headquarters to establish universal standards and permissible local variations on the basis of which key decisions are made. however, egocentrism requires a reward system for subsidiary a man

39、ager that motivates them to work for worldwide goals and not just to defend country objectives.in international enterprises, there are three general types of headquarters orientation toward subsidiaries; ethnocentric (home-country oriented), polycentric (or host-country oriented) , and geocentric (w

40、orld oriented).the ethnocentric attitude can be characterized as: we, the home-country nationals, are superior to, more trustworthy than, and more reliable than any foreigners in headquarters or the subsidiaries.” in such firms, performance criteria and decision rules are generally based on home-country standards. ethnocentrism works against a global strategy because of a lack of good feed back and because the experience and views of managers familiar with local conditions in the areas of operation do not carry appropriate weight in decision m