英語修辭學(xué)教案

1、精品文檔EnglishRhetoric英語修辭學(xué)I. Connotation of Rhetoric ：rhetoric 的含義1. Rhetoric may be used as an ordinary（普通用詞）word and atechnical term（專業(yè)術(shù)語） .1) As an ordinary word, rhetoric in a derogatory sense means “skilful argumentation ”（巧辯） and “empty or exaggerated eloquence”（虛夸的話） .e.g. the exaggerated rheto

2、ric of presidential campaigns（總統(tǒng)競選期間唱的高調(diào)）；the empty rhetoric of the politicians（政客們的花言巧語） ;flowery rhetoric （華麗的辭藻）Rhetoric also means (1) “l(fā)anguage designed to have a persuasive orimpressive effect on its audience”（言語，辭令） , e.g. employ stirringrhetoric; soothing rhetoric; glowing rhetoric (2) “arti

3、stic language”（藝術(shù)語言） , e.g. the rhetoric of fiction（小說的藝術(shù)語言） ; the rhetoric offilm( 電影語言 ); body rhetoric(肢體語言 )2) As a technical term, rhetoric has several senses. In America, the writing course or the writing textbook is entitled “rhetoric”. Apart from the above senses, rhetoric also has the follo

4、wing important senses:(1) Speaking rhetoric（演講修辭） : the art of speaking(2) Compositional rhetoric（寫作修辭） : the art of writing(3) Stylistic rhetoric （風(fēng)格修辭，文體修辭） : the style of writing2. Rhetoric may also be subdivided into the following:.精品文檔1) Lexical rhetoric（詞匯修辭） :the rhetorical law of choosing wo

5、rds and phrases2) Sentence rhetoric（句子修辭） :the rhetorical law selecting sentence patterns3) Paragraph rhetoric（段落修辭） :the rhetorical law of organizing paragraphs4) textual rhetoric（語篇修辭） :the rhetorical law of organizing textsII. Definition of Rhetoric修辭學(xué)的定義What is rhetoric ?1. Origin of modern rhet

6、oric: 現(xiàn)代修辭學(xué)的起源Rhetoric originated in “speaking”（說話）. Aristotle（亞里士多得） , in the 4th century BC, first defined rhetoric as the art of persuasion , equivalent to argumentation as people understand today. John Locke（約翰 .洛克） , English philosopher of the late 17th century, described rhetoric as “the scien

7、ce of oratory(演說術(shù) )”or “the art ofspeaking with propriety, elegance and force(修辭學(xué)是說話得體、優(yōu)美和有力的藝術(shù) )”. All this explains why the word “rhetoric”means “speaking”in such European languages as Greek, Latin, French, Spanish and Italian. In the book Modern Rhetoric by American linguists Brooks（布魯克斯） and War

8、ren（沃倫） rhetoric is definedas “the art of using language effectively（修辭學(xué)是有效地使用語言.精品文檔的藝術(shù)） ”.In the New Oxford Dictionary of Englishrhetoric is describedas “the art of effective or persuasive speaking or writing, especially the exploitation of figures of speech or other compositional techniques（修辭學(xué)是有

9、效或有說服力的演說或?qū)懽鞯乃囆g(shù)， 特別是運用英語修辭格或其它寫作的藝術(shù)）”.2. Rhetoric and Figures of Speech :Figures of speech are quite different from rhetoric, but they are important components in English rhetoric. In the New OxfordDictionary of English , “figure of speech”is defined as “a word or phrase used in a non-literal sense

10、too add rhetorical force or interest to a spoken or written passage”(修辭格是用一個非字面意義的單詞或短語使一段口頭或筆頭的文字增加修辭效果或興趣 ). They refer to rhetorical devices（修辭手段） , each of which has a fixed pattern, e.g. Simile is introduced by comparative words as, like, as if, as though, etc.; Like Simile, Metaphor refers to

11、the comparison of two essentially unlike things which have one point of resemblance; Irony refers to the intended implication of which is the opposite of the literal sense of words; Oxymoron refers to the conjunction of two words or phrases which are incongruous or contradictory in sense so as to de

12、scribe a person or thing; Pun; a play on words, sometimes on different senses of the same word and sometimes on.精品文檔the similar sense or sound of different words; etc. These figures are employed in the following.He is as stupid as a goose. (=He is very stupid.) He has a heartof stone./ He has a hear

13、tlike flint . (=He is unfeeling and stubborn.)He slept like a log / top . (=He slept very soundly.)They are birds of a feather . (=They are people of the same sort.) (Simile and metaphor are used of the comparison of two essentially unlike things which have one point of resemblance.)This hard-workin

14、g boy seldom reads more than an hour per week. (If a boy seldom reads more than an hour per week, he mustbe very lazy, not hard-working.)(Irony refers to the intended implication being the opposite of the literal sense of words)He seems to be aclever fool . (=He seems to be a fool, but in fact he is

15、 very clever.)(Oxymoron refers to the conjunction of two words or phrases which are incongruous or contradictory in sense)Ask for me tomorrow and you shall find me a grave man. (grave: adj. serious; n. tomb The speaker stresses the latter.)(Pun refers to a play on words，sometimes on different senses

16、 of the same word and sometimes on the similar sense or sound of.精品文檔different words)3. The difference between rhetoric and grammar, phonetics, lexicology1) The difference between rhetoric and grammarRhetoric is different from grammar, but it is closely related to grammar and also based on grammar.

17、To be grammatically correct is foundation to writing, but it is not enough. Basic rhetorical requirements must also be met. Francis Christensenn, an American French rhetorician, once said:Grammar maps out the possible(計劃可 能發(fā)生的事 情 ); rhetoric narrows the possible down to the desirable and effective（使

18、可能發(fā)生的事情變成很理想的事情或有效地事情）.In the preface to the book A handbook of English Rhetoric Warren quoted a passage by a scholar:Grammar is the law of language, considered as language; rhetoric is the art of language, considered as thought.Grammar tells what is correct; rhetoric tells what is effective and ple

19、asing.2) Rhetoric and phonetics, lexicologyRhetoric is quite different from phonetics and lexicology. Phonetics is about the study of speech sounds and their pronunciation; lexicology is about the study of the vocabulary of a language;.精品文檔grammar concerns the study or science of rules for forming w

20、ords and combining them into sentences; whereas rhetoric is the art of speaking or writing so as to persuade people effectively.III. The Object of the Study of Rhetoric （修辭學(xué)研究的內(nèi)容） Rhetoric aims at studying all forms of culture, which may be forms ofmass media or any cultural phenomenon, concrete or

21、abstract. Modern rhetoric seems to include all forms of discourse - written or colloquial, even all forms of communication in symbols（.修辭學(xué)研究的對象是一切文化形式，它們可以是任何這樣或那樣、具體或抽象的文化現(xiàn)象?，F(xiàn)代修辭學(xué)似乎要把所有的話語形式- 書面體和口語體，甚至所有用進行交流的形式都包括在內(nèi)。 ）IV . Contents of Modern Rhetoric（現(xiàn)代修辭學(xué)的內(nèi)容）1. There are two main rhetorical tren

22、d（傾向，趨勢）in contemporarywestern culture:1) Stylistics（文體學(xué)，風(fēng)格學(xué)）, which is associated with two aspects of writing:(1)Various registers（語域） , e.g. scientific and technical writing（科技文體） , business writing (商業(yè)文體 )and journalism（新聞體） ;(2) Stylistic variants（文體的變體）- literary language and style,including pe

23、rsonal style, and styles of different times and schools.2) Rhetoric（修辭學(xué)） , which is chiefly concerned with techniques of how to influence the audience: the functions and effects of different.精品文檔language symbols in communication activities; measures to promote mutual understanding and to affect the

24、emotions of the audience; skills to handle persuasion and arguments as described in the“threeaesthetic criteria（三個藝術(shù)標(biāo)準）”and the “three levels of rhetoricaloperations”（三個層次的修辭活動）.2. Specifically speaking, rhetoric consists of two basic aspects:1) Communicative rhetoric （交際修辭） , which emphasizes the c

25、hoice of words and phrases, and selection of sentence patterns, organizing paragraphs and whole pieces of writing in such a way that ideas are expressed most clearly, most accurately and most appropriately and the best results are achieved in communication.2) Aesthetic rhetoric （藝術(shù)修辭 ）, which stress

26、es the vividness andgracefulness（ 得 體） in expressing ones ideas by aesthetic approaches like the use of figures of speech so as to increase the emotional appeal （增強情感魅力） of ones speech or writing.V. The Three Fundamental Elements in Writing寫作的三個基本元素According to Dorothy Margaret Guinn(多羅西瑪 .格麗特 .吉恩 )

27、and Daniel Marder(丹尼爾 .瑪?shù)?) , co-authors of A Spectrum ofRhetoric 修辭學(xué)的范疇 , the three fundamental elements in writing are facts, reason and feeling（事實、推理、感情）. Any piece of written discourse contains a combination of these elements. A.精品文檔technical report（專業(yè)性報告） may be dominated by facts, though reaso

28、n and feeling will also be found; whereas a letter to a close friend may be charged / filled with feeling, but reason and facts will appear as well. Knowing how these elements combine helps writersto shape（形成） , elaborate（說明） and refine（完善） their own expression so that they will be able to communica

29、te with desirable results（能收到 .預(yù)期的效果）VI. The Three Principles for Our Study of Rhetoric(研究修辭學(xué)的三個原則 )There are three principles we should abide by in our study of English rhetoric:1. We should pay due attention to the rhetorical traditions which have been handed down from classical rhetoric and from

30、all the rhetorical modes and techniques at the three of rhetorical operations(修辭活動 ). We should study them and apply them to our practice of speaking and writing. Meanwhile the audience and the context（場合） should be borne in mind when we use any one of the rhetorical principles and techniques. ( see

31、 p.8)2. In order to achieve the best results in communication, one has to understand(了解 ) the person or people being written or spoken to, and do what is appropriate(合適的 ) for that particular occasion. (see p9).精品文檔3. The thirdprinciple is that we should guard against(避免 ) thenegative influence of o

32、ur mother tongue. Dorothy M. Ginn(多羅西M. 吉恩 )and Daniel Marder ( 丹尼爾 . 瑪?shù)?) write:“Rhetoricaloperations are patterns of thought that direct(支配 ) and order(整理 )our perceptions, ideas, and feelings（印象、思想、感情）.”(see p 11)VII. The Three Aesthetic Criteria in English Rhetoric:（修辭學(xué)的三個藝術(shù)標(biāo)準）1. The three basic

33、 elements in rhetoric :English rhetoric has longstanding traditions tracing back to Aristotle in Greece (384-322 BC), and even earlier. The three aesthetic criteria, logos (=logic), pathos (=emotion), ethos (=character), are its fundamental elements.The three aesthetic criteria discussed here are co

34、nfined to their basic meanings and applications in writing and speaking, equivalent to Chinese “邏輯”，“情感” and“人格” respectively.1) Logic and logical thinking （邏輯與邏輯思維）Logos, similar to “dao”(道) in ancient Chinese philosophy, contains profound implications of logic. When applied to the practice of writ

35、ing and speaking, logos refers to the use of logical reasoning to persuade the audience or readers.Effective logical reasoning comes from sound（完美的） logical thinking, expressed in relevant material, proper organization, coherent.精品文檔sentences, and words that appropriately convey ones intended meanin

36、gs. Examine the following example taken from a students composition: (see p 19)(1) Formal logic and syllogism（形式邏輯和三段推理法）a. In formal logic, there are two basic approaches people often use for logical reasoning: deduction and induction.a) What is deduction (演繹推理 )?Deduction is the inference of parti

37、cular instances by reference to a general law or principle. (-The New Oxford Dictionary of English) （演繹推理是由一般原理或規(guī)律推出關(guān)于特殊情況下的結(jié)論）Or: Deduction is reasoning from general principles to particular cases.e.g. All men must die. 人固有一死。（Major premise)I am a man.我是人。 (Minor premise)Therefore I must die. 我一定會死

38、。 (Conclusion)b) What is induction（歸納推理） ?Inductionis the inference of a general law from particularinstances. (ditto) （歸納推理是由一系列具體事實概括出一般規(guī)律）Or: Induction is the method of logic reasoning which contains or discovers a general law from particular facts or examples.精品文檔e.g. Gold is a conductor. 金是一種導(dǎo)體

39、。Silver is a conductor.銀是一種導(dǎo)體。Copper is a conductor. 銅是一種導(dǎo)體。Iron is a conductor.鐵是一種導(dǎo)體。They are all metals. 它們都是金屬。All metals are conductors. 所有金屬都是導(dǎo)體。c) What is syllogism（三段推理法） ?Syllogism represents deductive reasoning in a pattern consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion.

40、e.g. All metals are conductors. (Major premise)Copper is a metal. (Minor premise)Therefore copper is a conductor.(Conclusion)2) Changes in the connotation ofpathos （情感含義的變化 ）(1) Originally , the term “pathos” referred to the emotion in general which a speaker tried to arouse in the audience. In mode

41、rn rhetoric, it ranges from the study of the psychology of the audience or readers to the application of technology to convince them by emotional appeals(情感魅力 ).The effects of emotional appeals include moral anger, ambition, excitement, fear, happiness, pity as well as various other feelings. By pla

42、ying upon( 利用 ) such feelings, the writer intends to change the beliefs and behavior of his or her readers.精品文檔(2) Pathos in use today （當(dāng)今所用的情感）A) The use of emotional appeals is all around us. It is an essential element in advertising, public relations, image-making( 塑造形象), and education, especiall

43、y in “affectiveeducation”( 情感教育). In modern management, the practice of what is called“emotion investment”(感情投資 ) is also associated with pathos. For instance, the manager remembers to prepare a gift for each member of the staff on his or her birthday.B) Effective appeals to the emotions depend upon

44、 the skilful-often witty handling of language, frequently accompanied by “exposure”（揭露）and “eloquence”（口才）。.1. “Exposure ”evokes moral indignation - sometimes humorously, sometimes angrily - by condemning the unjust reality or revealing the difference between how things should be and how they are. T

45、he following is a letter that shows how an American mother resorts to(采用 ) this skill to move others to stand against the unjust war against Vietnam: (see the letter on p 23)I am more than angry. I did not give birth to my one andonly (=only) son to have him snatched away from me 18years later (我不因

46、18 年后小孩從我身邊搶走而生下唯一的男兒 ). My child has been loved and cared for and taught rightfrom wrong (一直受到辨別是非的教育) and will not be fed.精品文檔into(=be involved into) any egomaniac s war machine(不要卷入極端利己主義者的戰(zhàn)爭機器).Our 18-to 25-year-olds(18-25歲的人 ) have not brought this world to its present sorry state(目前這種可憐的境地 ).

47、Men over the age of 35(35 歲以上的人 ), down through the centuries(幾個世紀以來 ), have brought us here, and we women have been in silent accord 靜(靜保持一致 ).Well, this is one woman, one mother, who says No. I did not go through the magnificent agony of childbirth to have that glorious young life snuffed out(=kil

48、led 被殺害 )（我是由于不殺害光榮的年輕生命而經(jīng)歷了生小孩的巨大痛苦） .Until the presidents, premiers, supreme rulers, politburos(政客 ) and congressmen of the world are ready to physically, as opposed to(與 對比 ) verbally, lead the world into combat, they can bloody well(sl.=very well) forget my child.Unite, mothers! Dontthrow your s

49、ons and daughters away.Sometime, somewhere(某時某地 ), women must say No.No. No. No. No. No. Never my child( 不，不，不，不，不，決不拋棄自己的男孩和女孩！ ).(Louise M. Saylor, Washington Post, Jan. 28, 1980) Mother s love for children is profound, and universal.精品文檔The writer of the letter is a mother herself, and therefore,

50、 her appeal (呼吁 ) has a special effect in arousing the sympathy of other mothers.1. “Eloquence” refers to language used powerfully and fluently to appeal to people s nobler emotions - the sense of honor, love of ones country and hometown, desire to reach toward virtue( 達到效果 ). Eloquence is often use

51、d emotively, to express ones emotions and evoke the sympathy of the audience on solemn occasions or issues of great significance. In this aspect, the speech made by Martin Luther King, JR（.馬丁 .路德 .金）, on August 28,1963, at the March on Washington(在向華盛頓行進的路上 ), can be regarded as a fine sample of “th

52、e emotional crescendo (=climax 高潮 ) of an emotional day”(A New English Course, Level 5, p.231)C) Although a speech or a piece of writing may appeal mainly to peoples emotion(主要是激發(fā)人們的感情 ), it should be based upon logos. Take the above mothers letter for example. The logical reasoning that has made th

53、e mothers emotional appeal so powerful can be seen in three aspects: (see p. 25)First , her son has been loved and taught right from wrong (辨別是非 ) and it is unjust to send him to fight an aggressive.精品文檔war against another country.Second, since those who should be responsible for “thepresent sorry s

54、tate” are not ready to shoulder their responsibilities, it is unreasonable for them to turn other peoples children into “cannon fodder (炮灰 )”.Third , the mother is more than angry and her anger comes not only out of her love for her own son, but also out of her concern for the fate of all the 18-to

55、25-year-old young people. All the mothers should say No because there is absolutely no reason for them to have their childrens glorious young livessnuffed out (=killed 扼殺 ).As logic and emotion are so closely related in writing, skillful writers always use them successfully in order to make their words both convincing and moving.3) Ethos in rhetoric (修辭學(xué)中的人格 )A. When you look up the word “ethos”in a dictionary like Websters Third New International Dictionary , yo