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1、 6.7 Racetrack Procedure 6.8 Circling Approaches 6.9 Missed Approaches 6.10 RNAV Approaches Chapter 6 Approach Charts Approach charts are graphic representations of instrument approaches that are available at a given airport. The standards used in designing these instrument approaches are governed b

2、y each countrys controlling civil aviation administration (CAA): TERPS PANS-OPS JAR OPS 6.1 Introduction With both pilots and the airplane prepared, pilots can begin the pre-approach briefing. When flying with a crew, this briefing accomplishes at least three goals: You inform your fellow crewmember

3、s of how you plan to conduct the approach and what their expected responsibilities are; You give them a chance to provide input into your plan, catching things you may have overlooked, or adding responsibilities; The briefing can be used as a checklist to make sure radios/navaids/constraints have be

4、en properly programmed into the aircraft. And if you fly single-pilot, it is also a requirement to review the chart, especially for situational awareness. 6.2 Layout and Information Jeppesens approach charts are designed by pilots for pilots. The data placement within Jeppesen approach charts is bas

5、ed on observed pilot-usage patterns and incorporates human factors research, a standard pre- approach briefing sequence of information, and crew resource management (CRM) techniques. Take a closer look at a typical Jeppesen approach chart to see what information is provided. The Heading The Plan Vie

6、w Profile View Landing Minimums Heading Profile View Plan View Landing Minimum 6.2.1 Heading The top of a Jeppesen approach chart presents basic approach information in the same order in which you would normally brief the procedure prior to flying it. The format is referred to as the Briefing Strip

7、format. Development of the briefing strip concept began in 1993, and is now a highly refined variation of the original classic format. The main feature of the briefing strip arrangement is to place basic information in a common location for more convenient use during the pre-approach briefing. The i

8、nformation in chart heading includes: Heading Border Data Communication Row Pre-Approach Briefing Strip Radials, including lead radials and cross radials; Bearing and courses; Approach transitions, feeder routes, and/or arrival routes, including distances and altitudes; Course reversals, including p

9、rocedure turns; Holding patterns. Flight Track Approach procedure flight track Missed approach track Visual flight track High level track Magnetic Bearings and Courses True Course Magnetic Heading (Routes without radio aids guidance) Magnetic Course Radial Radial Approach Transitions Approach transi

10、tions provide guidance to navigate from the enroute airway system to the instrument approach. Approach Transition is too long or too complex DME Arc however, it is not drawn to scale. The symbols in profile view include: Flight tracks, including bearings, distances, times, missed approach points, co

11、urse reversals, stepdown fixes, visual descent points, and VNAV constant rate of descent Navaids and waypoints, including makers and fixes Altitudes, including the recommended altitude/height descent table Conversion table Lighting and missed approach icons 6.2.3.1 Descent Flight Tracks (non) Precis

12、ion Approach Glide Slope MLS Glide PathNon-precision Glide Slope High level approach track Visual flight track Outbound limited by DME Outbound limited by Time 6.2.3.2 Airspace Fixes The flight track from intermediate approach course to final approach course is defined by Marker Beacons, Fixes, Wayp

13、oints and Navaids on the profile view. FAF/FAPFix For a nonprecision approach procedure, the FAF is indicated on the profile view by a Maltese Cross, if specified by the state source. FAF/FAP For a precision approach procedure, the final approach segment starts at the point on the localizer course w

14、here the glide slope/path is to be intercepted at the prescribed glide slope interception altitude. This point is called the FAF in the United States and Canada, and the FAP under ICAO applications. Again, the FAP is not depicted on the approach chart. Stepdown Fixes Many approaches incorporate one

15、or more stepdown fixes along approach segments to allow you to descend to a lower altitude after you overfly various obstales. When you cannot identify a stepdown fix, you must level off at the minimum altitude specified for that fix. Only one stepdown fix normally is permitted between the final app

16、roach fix and the missed approach point. The MAP (Missed Approach Point) is a point prescribed in each instrument approach procedure at which a missed approach procedure must be executed if the required visual reference has not been achieved. MAP For precision approaches, the MAP is the point where

17、you reach the DA(H), while descending on the glide slope. You must execute the missed approach procedure if the required visual reference to continue the approach has not been established. For nonprecision approaches, the MAP occurs either at a fix defined by a navaid, or after a specified period of

18、 time has elapsed since you crossed the final approach fix. The conversion table at the lower left corner of the chart will specify the MAP and, if applicable, the time at various speeds from the final approach fix to the MAP. A VDP (Visual descent point) depicted by the letter V in the profile view

19、, represents the point from which you can make a normal descent to a landing, provided you have the approach end of the runway in sight and you are at the minimum descent altitude (MDA) . A descent below the MDA should not be started prior to reaching the VDP. VDP 6.2.3.3 Altitudes The profile view

20、shows minimum altitudes along the flight track. All altitudes are given above QNH in feet, followed by a parenthetical number which shows the HAT (Height above touchdown zone or threshold). When a TDZE (Touchdown zone elevation) is not given, the numbers represent height above the airport elevation

21、(HAA). All altitudes are MINIMUM altitude unless specifically labeled otherwise, such as “MANDATORY”、“MAXIMUM”、 “RECOMMENDED”. “MANDATORY” means the altitude shown is required at the fix or glide slope intercept. Maximum altitudes are labeled “MAXIMUM” and may be abbreviated “MAX” . Recommended alti

22、tudes are labeled “RECOMMENDED”. TDZE is the highest elevation in the first 3,000 feet of the landing surface. TCH (Threshold Crossing Height) is a theoretical height above the runway threshold when you are established on the glide slope descent path. TCH has been traditionally used in precision app

23、roaches as the height of the airborne glide slope antennae when passing above the runway threshold. 6.2.3.4 Conversion Tables For a precision approach, the table lists the glide slope angle an groundspeed to the rate of descent for the ILS glide slope (descent in feet per minute). For nonprecision a

24、pproaches, the table relates groundspeed to the distance from the FAF (the LOM or similar fix) and shows the time in minutes and seconds to fly from FAF or other specified fix to MAP. For combined ILS and LOC approaches, only one descent table is provided when the ILS glide slope angle and the desce

25、nt gradient of the LOC approach are coincidental. 6.2.3.5 Lighting Icons PAPI: Precision Approach Path indicator Standard 2-bar VASI VASI: Visual approach slop indicator Missed Approach Icons 6.2.4 Landing Minimums The landing minimums table, found at the bottom of the Jeppesen approach chart, conta

26、ins two types of minimums that must both be met in order to legally complete the approach to landing: DA(H)/MDA(H) VIS/RVR 6.2.4.1 Type of Procedure Landing minimums are affected by any or all of the following factors: Straight-in Straight-in landing minimums normally are depicted when the final app

27、roach course is positioned within 30of the runway alignment. Sidestep A sidestep maneuver is a procedure in which you are cleared for an approach to one runway with a clearance to land on a parallel runway. This type of approach procedure is rarely found outside the U.S and Canada. Circle-to-Land A

28、circling approach is a procedure that involves executing an approach to one runway and then landing on another. Because circle-to-land procedures do not specify a specific runway, the heights in parentheses are above the airport, rather than runway elevation. 6.2.4.2 Type of Approach Another differe

29、ntiation made in the landing minimums table is the type of approach. Category I Precision In a precision approach, the minimum altitude shown on the chart is called the DA. During the time you make this decision, you are continuing to descend, so if you execute a missed approach, you will pass sligh

30、tly through this altitude. Category II/III Precision For a Category II precision approach, the minimum altitudes shown on the chart are decision altitudes, as previously described in the Category I Precision discussion. Category II decision altitudes are typically accompanied by a RA height minimum.

31、 Category III precision approaches typically do not have a decision altitude and require special certification for the operator and the individual pilot. Nonprecision In a nonprecision approach, the minimum altitude shown on the chart is called the MDA because it is the lowest altitude to which you

32、may descend until you have established the required visual reference requirements and are in a position to land. Multiple Approach Types Occasionally, a chart portrays more than one type of approach procedure on the same chart. In that case, multiple sets of straight-in minimums are provided. 6.2.4.

33、3 Aircraft Approach Ategory The type of aircraft affects the landing minimums. The landing minimums table includes divisions for each of four aircraft categories. Each aircraft is placed into an aircraft approach category based on its computed approach speed. This speed equals 130% of the aircrafts

34、stall speed in the landing configuration at the maximum certificated landing weight. 6.2.4.4 Inoperative Components or Visual Aids Landing minimums usually increase when a required radio navigation component or visual aid becomes inoperative. Regulation permit you to make substitutions for certain c

35、omponents when the component is inoperative, or is not utilized during an approach. For example, on an ILS approach, a compass locator or precision radar may be substituted for the outer marker where so depicted in the profile view. When the ILS glide slope is inoperative, the procedure becomes a no

36、nprecision localizer approach, raising the minimum altitude to which you can descend, and changing to a minimum descent altitude rather than a decision altitude. Glide Slope Sometimes lower minimums are allowed when you can identify a particular fix in a nonprecision final approach segment. Although

37、 DME may not be required to fly the specific approach procedure, the ability to identify a DME fix provides lower minimums. DME Fixes Whether or not certain lighting systems (typically approach lights, centerline lights, or touchdown zone lights) are working affects the visibility requirements for t

38、he approach procedure. Lighting Middle Marker Although in the U.S, the FAA has eliminated the penalty for an inoperative middle marker, a few countries (such as Brazil, Chain Taipei ) continue the penalty. Altimeter Setting When an altimeter setting is derived from a remote source more than 5 miles

39、from the airport reference point, rather than a local altimeter, the DA(H) or MDA(H) is increased by a factor that considers both the remote altimeter as well as the elevation difference between the landing airport and the remote altimeter airport. 6.2.4.5 Airport Operating Specifications Although c

40、ontinuous efforts are being made to standardize airport operating specifications around the world, there remain significant differences between governing specifications, especially in the area of landing and takeoff minimums. There are three primary specifications that Jeppesen applies when determin

41、ing minimums: ICAO Document 9365, Manual of All- Weather Operations Joint Aviation Regulations Operations (JAR OPS-1 Subpart E) FAA Handbook 8260.3B TERPS 6.2.4.6 Other Factors In addition to those factors covered in this lesson, many other factors may affect landing minimums, especially those in th

42、e circle-to-land column. Frequently, these restrictions are due to critical terrain or obstacles, prohibitions to overfly nearby residence areas, or for noise abatement. Time of Day Direction Runway Terrain 6.3 Nonprecision Approaches A nonprecision approach provides lateral course guidance with no

43、electronic glide slope information. The most common of the nonprecision approaches and the navigation aids and systems upon which they are predicated include: VOR NDB LOC GPS Some other uncommon nonprecision approach: LOC Back Course Approaches LDA Approach SDF Approach 6.3.1 Effects of Navaid Locat

44、ion Regardless of the type of navaid, its location in relation to the runway can significantly affect the approach. There are two basic types of nonprecision approaches: those that use a navaid located beyond the airport boundaries, and those with the navaid located on the airport. An on-airport fac

45、ility is one that is located within 1 mile of the nearest portion of the landing runway for a straight-in approach , or within 1 mile of the nearest portion of the usable landing surface for a circling approach. On-Airport Facility Off-Airport Facility You might notice the effects of the navaid loca

46、tion in other parts of the approach chart as well: Final approach course Course reversal Presence of an FAF Timing from FAF to MAP MAP 6.3.2 Final Approach Course Even on nonprecision approaches to the same straight-in runway, you may need to fly a different final approach course due to the location

47、 of an non-airport navaid. This difference is even more pronounced in Andoya, Norway. Course Reversal With an on-airport navaid, you may have to execute a procedure turn where you might not need to if the approach where based on an off-airport navaid. This is because you may need to establish your p

48、osition prior to descending, by flying first to the navaid at the airport and then performing a procedure turn to complete the approach. Presence of an FAF When the primary navaid is not located on the airport( for example, on the final approach course ), it often serves as both the initial approach

49、 fix (IAF) and the final approach fix (FAF). When the navaid is on the airport, no FAF is designated unless DME or another means is available for identifying such a fix. Instead, a final approach point (FAP) is designated and serves as the FAF. FAF The location of the FAP is defined as the beginning

50、 of the final approach segment. This point is where the aircraft is established inbound after completing any required procedure turn. Since this could be a different point for each aircraft that flies the approach, the FAP is dynamic, rather than static like an FAF. Timing from FAF to MAP The conver

51、sion table may include the approximate length of time it will take to fly from the final approach fix (FAF) or equivalent to the missed approach point (MAP) for a given groundspeed. If DME is required for the approach, timing data is frequently not provided, because the pilot is expected to identify

52、 the MAP from the MDE reference. GPS approaches do not provide timing data because the pilot determines the MAP from the specific waypoint programmed into the GPS system. When the navaid is on the airport, it frequently serves as the MAP. You would not require timing data because you know when you h

53、ave reached the navaid and, therefore , the MAP. MAP For nonprecision approaches, the missed approach point (MAP) occurs either at a fix defined by a navaid, or after a specified period of time has elapsed since you crossed the final approach fix (FAF). The exact location of the missed approach poin

54、t (MAP) depends on obstacles in the missed approach area, as well as whether the navaid is on off the airport: For off-airport facilities, the MAP cannot be further from the final approach fix (FAF) than the runway threshold for straight-in approaches, or from the first usable portion of the landing

55、 area for circling approaches. For on-airport facilities, the MAP is the navaid facility. Example 6.4 Precision Approach The instrument landing system (ILS) is a precision approach navigational aid that provides highly accurate course, glide slope, and distance guidance to a given runway. There are

56、three general classifications of ILS approaches-Category I, Category II, and Category III. To fly a basic ILS approach (Category I), you must be instrument rated, current, and your aircraft must be equipped appropriately. ILS approaches may also be Category II or III; these approaches typically have

57、 lower minimums and require special certification for operators, pilots, aircraft, and air/ground equipment. The ILS can be the safer approach alternative in poor weather conditions for several reasons: It provides vertical course guidance in addition to lateral guidance. It is a more accurate appro

58、ach aid than any other widely available system. The increased accuracy and the vertical guidance through the glide slope generally allows for approach minimums. The lower minimums can make it possible to execute an ILS approach and land at an airport when it would not have been possible using a nonp

59、recision approach. Example 6.5 Straight-in Approaches Straight-in landing minimums normally are used when the final approach course is positioned within 30of the runway and a minimum of maneuvering is required to align the airplane with the runway. However, the offset should not be more than 15from

60、the runway centerline for Category C and D aircraft. In contrast to a straight-in landing, the controller terminology “cleared for straight-in approach”means that you should not perform a course reversal, but does not reference landing minimums. For example, you could be “cleared for straight-in ILS