戴煒棟簡(jiǎn)明語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程配套筆記

1、戴煒棟簡(jiǎn)明語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程配套筆記Chapter 1 What is language?A The origins of IanguageSome speculationsof the origins of Ianguage: The divine sourceThe basic hypothesis: if infants were allowed to grow up without hearing any Ianguage, the n they would spontan eously beg in using the orig inal god-give n Ian guage.Actua

2、lly, children living without access to human speech in their early years grow up with no Ianguage at all. The natural-sound sourceThe bow-wow theory: the suggestion is that primitive words could have been imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women heard around them.The Yeheave-ho the

3、ory: the sounds produced by humans when exerting physical effort, especially when co-operating with other humans, may be the origins of speech sounds.Ono matopoeic sounds The oral-gesture sourceIt is claimed that originally a set of physical gestures was developed as a means of com muni cati on.The

4、patter ns of moveme nt in articulati on would be the same as gestural moveme nt; he nee waving tongue would develop from waving hand. Glossogenetic（言語(yǔ)遺傳學(xué)）This focuses mainly on the biological basis of the formation and development o f human Ianguage.Physiological adaptati on develop naming ability i

5、n teract ions and tran sacti ons Physical adaptati on:Human teeth are upright and roughly even in height.Human lips have intricate muscle interlacing, thus making them very flexible. The human mouth is small and contains a very flexible tongue.The huma n lary nx is lowered, creati ng a Ion ger cavit

6、y called the phary nx, and making it easier for the human to choke on the pieces of food, but making the sound speech pos sible.The human brain is lateralized. Those analytic functions (tool-using and Ianguage) are l argely confined to the left hemisphere of the brain for most humans.Two major funct

7、ions of language:In teract ion al: a social fun cti on of Ian guage.Tran sacti on al: a fun cti on inv olvi ng the com muni cati on of kno wledge and in forma tio nB The properties of IanguageLan guage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for huma n com muni catio n.a) System: combined togeth

8、er according to rulesb) Arbitrary: no intrinsic connection between the word pen and the thing in the worl d which it refers toc) Vocal: the primary medium is sound for all Ianguagesd) Human: Ianguage is human-specific (交際性與信息性)Communicative vs. Informative:Communi cative: inten ti on ally using Ian

9、guage to com muni cate somethi ngIn formative: through/via a nu mber of sig nals that are not inten ti on ally sentDesign features (unique properties): the defining properties of human Ianguage that disti n guish it from any ani mal system of com muni catio n Displacement (跨時(shí)空性，移位性)Lan guage can be

10、used to refer to con texts removed from the immediate situatio ns of t he speaker (refer to past and future time and to other locations) Arbitrariness (任意性)There is no logical or natural connection between a linguistic form (either sound or w ord) and its meaning.While Ianguage is arbitrary by natur

11、e, it is not entirely arbitrary.a) echo of the sounds of objects or activities: onomatopoeic wordsb) some compo und words Productivity （能產(chǎn)性，創(chuàng)造性）Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. （Creativity or open-endedness） Cultural tr

12、ansition （文化傳遞性）While human capacity for Ianguage has a genetic basis （everyone was born with the a bility to acquire a Ianguage）, the details of any Ianguage system are not genetically transmit ted, but in stead have to be taught and lear nt. Discreteness（可分離性）Each sound in the Ian guage is treated

13、 as discrete. Duality （雙重結(jié)構(gòu)性，兩重性或二元性）Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. The lower or basic level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless. The higher level is morpheme or word （d ouble articulati on）The above six properties may be taken as the core features of human

14、Ianguage.Vocal-auditory channel, reciprocity, specialization, non-directionality, or rapid fade, these properties are best treated as ways of describing human Ianguage, but not as a means of dist in guish ing it from other systems of com muni cati on.C The developmentof writtenIanguage pictograms &

15、ideograms （象形文字和表意文字）Pictogram: when some of the pictures came to represent particular images in a consiste nt way, we can beg in to describe the product as a form of picture-writi ng, or pictograms.Ideogram: the picture developed as more abstract and used other than its entity is cons idered to be

16、part of a system of idea-writing, or ideogramHieroglyph:古埃及象形文字 Logograms （語(yǔ)標(biāo)書(shū)寫(xiě)法）When symbols come to be used to represent words in a Ianguage, they are described a s examples of word-writing, or logograms.Arbitrari ness a wng system which was word-based had come in to existe nc e.Cuneiform-楔形文字一the

17、 Sumerians （5000 and 6000 years ago）Chinese is one example of its modern writing system.Advantages: two different dialects can be based on the same writing system. Disadvantages: vast number of different written forms. Syllabic writing (音節(jié)書(shū)寫(xiě)法)When a writing system employs a set of symbols which repr

18、esent the pronunciations o f syllables, it is described as syllabic writing.The Phoenicians: the first human beings that applied the full use of a syllabic writing system (ca 1000 BC) Alphabetic writing (字母書(shū)寫(xiě)法)Semitic Ianguages (Arabic and Hebrew): first applied this ruleThe Greeks: tak ing the in h

19、ere ntly syllabic system from the Phoe ni cia ns via the Roma nsLatin alphabet and Cyrillic alphabet (Slavic Ianguages) Rebus writingRobus writing evolves a process whereby the symbol used for an entity comes to be u sed for the sound of the spoken word used for that entity.第6頁(yè)共53頁(yè)Chapter 2 What is

20、linguistics?A The definitionof linguisticsLin guistics is gen erally defi ned as the scie ntific study of Ian guage.Process of linguistic study: Certain linguisticfacts are observed, generalizationare formed; Hypotheses are formulated; Hypotheses are tested by further observations; A linguistic theo

21、ry is constructed.Lan guage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for huma n com muni cati on.B The scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics the study of language as a wholePhonetics the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of th e phonic medium of Ianguage) (How

22、speech sounds are produced and classified)Phonology is esse ntially the descripti on of the systems and patter ns of speech sounds in a Ianguage. (How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are

23、combined to form words)Syntax: the study of those rules that gover n the comb in ati on of words to form permiss ible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences)Semantics the study of meaning in abstractionPragmatics: the study of meaning in con text of useSociolinguistics the

24、 study of language with referenee to society Psycholinguistics the study of language with reference to the workings of the mi ndApplied linguistics the application of linguistics principles and theories to language te ach ing and lear ningAn thropologicallin guistics, n eurological lin guistics; mat

25、hematicallin guistics;mathematicallin guistics;computati onal lin guisticsC_Some_importantdistinctionsin linguistics Prescriptive vs. Descriptive Synchronic vs. DiachronicThe description of a Ianguage at some point in time;The description of a Ianguage as it changes through time. Speech and writingS

26、poken Ianguage is primary, not the written Langue and paroleProposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological)Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speec h com mun ityParole: refers to the realization of Iangue in actual use Competence and performancePr

27、oposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky (psychological)Compete nee: the ideal user knowledge of the rules of his Ian guage戴煒棟簡(jiǎn)明語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程配套筆記Chapter 3 Phonetics and phonologyA The definitionof phoneticsPhonetics: the study of the phonic medium of Ianguage: it is concerned with all the so unds that occ

28、ur in the world sanguages.Articulatory phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.Acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air.Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics: deals with the perception, via the ear, of speec h soun ds.Forensic

29、 phonetics: has an application in legal cases involving speaker identification an d the analysis of recorded utterances.B Orga ns of speechVoiceless: when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes betwee n them uni mpeded.Voiced: when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air

30、 from the lungs repeated push es them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect.All the English vowels are typically voiced (voicing).The importa nt cavities:The phary ngeal cavityThe oral cavityThe n asal cavityLips, teeth, teeth ridge (alveolus), hard palate, soft palate (velum), uvu

31、la, tip of tongue, blade of tongue, back of tongue, vocal cordsC Orthographicrepresentationof speech soundsBroad and n arrow tran scripti onsIPA (International Phonetic Alphabet/Association)Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols onlyNarrow transcription: the transcription with di

32、acriticsIli:f-a clear I (no diacritic)Ibild-a dark II hel - a dental I()IIppit- an aspirated p ()p spit- an unaspirated p (no diacritic)n b tn a syllabic nasal n()D Classificationof English consonantsIn terms of manner of articulation (the manner in which obstruction is created) Stops: the obstructi

33、on is total or complete, and then going abruptlyp/b, t/d, k/g Fricatives: the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow pass age in the mon thf/v, s/z, / , / , h (approximant) Affricates: the obstruct ion, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricativest /d Liquids: the a

34、irflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouthI a lateral sound; r retroflex Glides: w, j (semi-vowels)Liquid + glides + h approxima nts Nasals: the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass th

35、r ough itm,By place of articulation (the place where obstruct ion is created) bilabials: upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructionsp/b, w (velar) labiodentals: the lower lip and the upper teethf/v dentals: the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth/ alveolars: the front pa

36、rt of the tongue on the alveolar ridget/d, s/z, n, l, r alveo-palatals (palato-alveolars): tongue and the very front of the palate, near th e alveolar ridge/ , t/d palatal: tongue in the middle of the palatej velars: the back of the tongue against the velumk, g,w glottals: the glottal is the space b

37、etween the vocal cords in the larynxhE Classificationof English vowelsFrontCen tralBacki:Close i、u:uSemi-closee:Semi-ope n:Ope n: The highest position of the tongue: front, central, back; The opennessof the mouth: close, semi-close, semi-open, open; The roundness (shape) of the month (the lips):All

38、the front, central vowels are unrounded vowels except All the back vowels, except A: are rounded vowels The length of the sound long vowels & short vowelsLarynx(tense) or (lax)Mono phth on gs, diphth ongsCardinal vowelsF The defi niti on of phono logyPhonetics is interested in all the speech sounds

39、used in all human Ianguages; how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess,how t hey can be classified, etc.Phono logy, on the other han d, is in terested in the system of sounds of a particular Ian guages; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a Ian

40、guage form patter ns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in lin guistic com muni cati on.G Phone, phoneme, and allophonePhone: the different versions of the abstract unit - phonemePhoneme: the mean-distinguishing sound in a Ianguage, placed in slash marksAllophone: a set of phones, all o

41、f which are versions of one phonemeG Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairPhonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two w ords and they distinguish meaning, they rie phonemic contrast.E.g. pin & bin /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe /p/ vs. /b/Complem

42、entary distribution: two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes a re said to be in complementary distribution because they can not appear at the same time, or occur in different environment, besides they do not distinguish meaning.Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in eve

43、ry way except for one soun d segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.When a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then all of these words constitute a minima

44、l se ts.HU Some rules in phonology sequential rulesSyllableOn setrimeNucleuscodaConsonantvowel consonan t(s)Phono tactics of 3Cs occurri ng in on set:No1:_/s/voiceless stops: /p/, /t/, /k/approximants: /r/, /I/, /w/, /j/No2:The affricates t /d and the sibilants s, z, , are not to be followed by anot

45、her sibilants. assimilation rulesCo-articulation effects: the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next is called co-articulation.Assimilation & elision effectsAssimilation: two phonemes occur in sequenee and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or copied by the otherE.g. nasali

46、ze a vowel when it is followed by a nasal sound. deletion rule-ElisionDefinition: the omission of a sound segment which would be present in deliberate pronunciation of a word in isolationE.g. delete a g when it occurs before a final nasal consonant卩Suprasegmentai features StressWord stress & sentenc

47、e stressThe stress of the English compounds always on the first element ToneDefinition: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibrat ion of the vocal cords.Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like morphemes.Tone Ianguage, like Chinese, has four tones.Level,

48、 rise, fall-rise, fall IntonationWhen pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in is olation, they are collectively known as intonation.English: the four basic types of intonation, or the four tonesThe falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rising tone, and the r

49、ise-fall tone第26頁(yè)共53頁(yè)Chapter 4 MorphologyA The definitionof morphologyMorphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Inflectional morphologyDerivational morphology (lexical morphology)Morpheme: the smallest meaningful component

50、s of words(A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function)B Free morphemes & bound morphemesFree morphemes: can sta nd by themselves as si ngle wordsLexical morphemes n.a.v & functional morphemes n.Bound morphemes: can not normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to

51、 ano ther formDerivational morphemes- affix (suffix, infix, prefix) + rootInflectional morphemes 88 types of inflectional morphemes in EnglishNoun+ - s-s possessive; pluralVerb+ -s, -ing, -ed, -en 3rd person present singular; present participle; past tense, past parti cipleAdj+ -er, -est comparative

52、; superlativeC Derivational vs. inflectionalInflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a wordIn flect ional morphemes in flue nee the whole category;Derivational morphemes are oppositeOrder: root (stem) + derivational + inflectionalD Morphological RulesN. +ly a.; A. +ly adv.; gu

53、ard overge neralizatio nE Morphs and allomorphsMorphs: the actual forms used to realize morphemesAllomorphs: a set of morphs, all of which are versions of one morpheme, we refer to them as allomorphs of that morpheme.F Word-formationprocess Coinage the invention of totally new terms Borrowing the ta

54、king over of words form other IanguagesLoan-translation (Claque)a direct translation of the elements of a word into theborrowing IanguageStand alone to be the opposite of word-formation Compounding a joining of two separate words to produce a single formFeatures of compoundsa) Orthographically, a co

55、mpound can be written as one word, with or without a hyphen in b etween, or as two separate words.b) Syn tactically, the part of speech of the compo und is gen erally determ ined by the part of s peech of the second element.c) Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always be

56、ing the sum to tal of the meanings of its components.d) Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element,While the sec ond eleme nt receives sec on dary stress. Blendingtak ing over the beg inning of one word and joining it to the end of other word Clipping a word of more than one syllable reduced to a shorter form Back formation a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing wordHypocorisms clipping or +ie Conversioncategory change, functional shift Acronymsnew words are formed from the initial letters of a set of