語言學與外語教學

1、Chapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching11.1 The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching 1. Both linguistics and foreign language teaching take language as their subject. Linguistics is the scientific study of language, so it is clearly related with language teaching. However,

2、 linguistics and language teaching differ in their attitudes, goals and methods towards language. 2. Linguistics regards language as a system of forms, while the field of foreign language teaching considers it as a set of skills. Linguistics research is concerned with the establishment of theories w

3、hich explain the phenomena of language use, whereas foreign language teaching aims at the learners mastery of language.3. Applied linguistics serves to reconcile and combine linguistics and foreign language teaching: (1): Applied linguistics extends theoretical linguistics in the direction of langua

4、ge learning and teaching, so that the teacher is enabled to make better decisions on the goal and content of the teaching. (2): Applied linguistics states the insights and implications that linguistic theories have on the language teaching methodology.11.2 Various Linguistic View and Their Significa

5、nce in Language Learning and Teaching Traditional grammar Traditional grammar, as a pre-20th century language description and a pre-linguistic product of research, was based upon earlier grammars of Latin and Greek, and laid emphasis on correctness, literary excellence, the use of Latin models, and

6、the priority of written language. Prescription was its key tone. The main teaching and learning activities are grammar and translation study.Structuralist linguisticsModern linguistics, in spite of the theoretical diversities, is primarily descriptive. Structuralist linguistics describes linguistics

7、 features in terms of structures and systems. It describes the current spoken language, which people use in daily communication. Its focus, however, is still on grammatical structures.Structuralist linguists are influenced by the behavioristic view that one learns a language by building up habits on

8、 the basis of stimulus-response chains. Universal grammarUG is also called Transformation-Generative Grammar or TG grammar.UG grammar sees language as a system of innate rules. A native speaker possesses a linguistic competence, or a language acquisition device. And UG attempts to explain the relati

9、vely quick acquisition of L1 on the basis of minimum exposure to external input. UG 認為語言習得本質上并不依靠外在的語言輸入The child is born with knowledge of some linguistic universals. While acquiring his mother tongue, he compares his innate language system with that of his native language and modifies his grammar.

10、 Therefore, language learning is not a matter of habit formation, but an activity of building and testing hypothesis. As for the construct of a sentence, TG grammar describes it as composed of a deep structure, a surface structure and some transformational rules.Although Chomsky does not intend to m

11、ake his model a representation of performance, i.e. the language actually used in communication, applied linguistics find UG grammar useful in certain aspects. But because it is a formal and abstract grammar, it remains limited in language teaching.Functional linguistics Taking a semantic-sociolingu

12、istic approach, Hallidays systemic-functional linguistics sees language as an instrument used to perform various functions in social interaction. It concerns not only with the formal system of language but also the function of language in society, and its scope is wider than that of former theories.

13、 In adult language, there are 3 Meta-functions: the ideational function, the interpersonal function, and the textual function. The discourse-based view of language teachingThe discourse-based view of language holds that linguistic patterns exist across stretches of text. 以語篇為基礎的語言觀認為語言模式存在于一段段的文本之中T

14、hese patterns extend beyond the words, clauses and sentences, which have been the traditional concern of language teaching. 這些模式超出了傳統(tǒng)語言教學所重視的單詞、斷句和句子等范圍。The focus of this view is on complete spoken and written texts and on the social and cultural contexts in which such language operated. 這種觀點的重點被放在完

15、整的口語和書面語文本上，和語言使用的社會和文化語境Accordingly, the discourse-based view of language teaching aims at developing discourse competence, which is similar to the well-known concept of competence, which is similar to the well-known concept of communicative competence. The concept competence originally comes from

16、Chomsky. It refers to the grammatical knowledge of the ideal language user and has nothing to do with the actual use of language in concrete situations. This concept of linguistic competence has been criticized for being too narrow. To expand the concept of competence, D.H. Hymes proposes Communicat

17、ive Competence: it refers to what a learner knows about how a language is used in particular situations for effective and appropriate communication. It includes knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary, knowledge of rules of speaking, knowledge of how to use and respond to different types of speech a

18、cts and social conventions, and knowledge of how to use language appropriately.Based on the above theory, in the case of foreign language learning, language learners are encouraged to deal with accomplishing actions, which are believed to help them acquire the target language. The communicative lang

19、uage teaching (CLT) and task-based language teaching (TBLT) are the best known examples of such theory. There are two broad types of tasks, real-world tasks and pedagogical tasks. Real-world task: it is very close to something we do in daily life or work. This is a real task because there are things

20、 like this in the real world. Pedagogical tasks are those activities that students do in the classroom but those may not take place in real life.Its weakness: it overemphasizes the role of external factors in the process of language acquisition and gives little importance to internal learning proces

21、s; it is similar to the behavioristic view of language acquisition in that environmental factors and input are at the very center in attempting to explicate the acquisition process; it overstresses the role of knowledge of competence and functions in acquiring a language, and fails to notice univers

22、al principle that guide language acquisition. 11.3 Linguistics and Language Learning GrammarandLanguage Learning One of the controversies in second language acquisition is whether or how to include grammar in second language instruction. There are mainly two methods adopted concerning this issue.Dis

23、crete-point grammar instructionMeaning-focused instructionDiscrete-point grammar instruction conducted by more traditional language teachers has been widely criticized for focusing on forms and ignoring meanings.Findings from immersion and naturalistic language acquisition studies suggest that when

24、classroom second language learning is entirely experiential and meaning-focused, some linguistic features do not ultimately develop to target-like levels.As a result, a compromise between the “purely form-focused approaches” and “purely meaning-focused approaches”, FOCUS ON FORM came into being. The

25、 focus on form approach takes a more balanced view that although language learning should generally be meaning focused and communication oriented, it is still necessary and beneficial to focus on form occasionally. However, the focus on form has its problem. One question is what elements of language

26、 are most amenable to focus on form. This question has been dealt with mostly from a linguistic point of view.Two variables concerning the amenability of language elements to focus on form are the relevance of Universal Grammar (UG) 普遍語法相關性and complexity of language structures語言結構復雜性.Here we need to

27、 note that what a amenability is. Amenability順從性:就是指某個語言項目通過學習而發(fā)生變化的可能性Universal grammarComplexity of language structuresif an L2 structure is part of UG, the amenability is high. In focus on form, different measures will be taken depending on whether the amenability of form is high or low, but the

28、problem is that no one knows what exactly is part of UG. Therefore, the study of UG is what is most needed in language learning research.the variable of complexity is not easier to tackle. It is assumed that less complex structures have higher amenability, but complexity is hard to define and measur

29、e. Formally simple structures can be functionally complex, so we need to turn to the study of linguistics to have a better understanding of the complexity of language structures.InputandLanguage LearningLanguage learning can take place when the learner has enough access to input in the target langua

30、ge, whether the input is in written or spoken form.學習者接受了足夠的目標與輸入時，語言學習才有可能發(fā)生,這種輸入可以是口語也可以是書面語.In respect of what kinds of input should be provided for language learners, views diverge greatly. We will examine some of the views in the following section. Authentic input 真實性輸入Comprehensible input可理解性輸

31、入Proponents of meaning-oriented language instruction tend to insist on authentic input. That is to say, the input should relate to the real life, and it usually neglects the grammar. They contend that ideal materials at all levels should provide frequent exposure to authentic input which is rich and

32、 varied, that is, the input should vary in style, mode, medium and purpose and should be rich in features which are characteristic of authentic discourse in the target language. Some experts strongly believe that any input must be comprehensible if it is to have any effect on learning. According to

33、Krashens Input Hypothesis, learners acquire language as a result of comprehending input addressed to them. Krashen put forward the concept of “i+1” principle: the language that learners are exposed to should be just far enough beyond their current competence that they can understand most of it but s

34、till be challenged to make prepress. Input should be neither too difficult nor too easy for the learnersOptimal input 最佳輸入Many researchers have conducted studies on kinds of optimal input, the following are tow of which:Pre-modified input預修正輸入Interactively modified input交互性修正輸入It is material that is

35、 finely turned in advance to the learners current level.它是指據(jù)學習者的現(xiàn)有水平實現(xiàn)對語言材料進行精細調整It is material that is modified when the teacher and the learners interact.它是指材料在老師和學生的互動中進行修正 Interactively modified input is proved to do a better job.Interlanguagein language learning語言學習中的中介語When learners construct

36、language, they are not only reproducing what they have learned; instead, they are processing and constructing things. The concept of language output is similar to the constructivism, which argues that language is socially constructed. 學習者構建語言，并不僅僅是重復他們所學的東西，而是進行加工和構建。語言輸出這個概念和構建主義是相吻合的，構建主義認為語言實在社會中

37、建構的。The concept of interlanguage(中介語) was established as learners independent system of the second language which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum among the target language and the learners native language. Its imperfect compared with the target language, bu

38、t it is not mere translation from the learners native language. 中介語是學習者在學習語言的過程中建立起的一個獨立的語言系統(tǒng)，既不是母語也不是第二語言，而是位于目標與和學習者母語之間的一種語言。與目標與相比，中介語是不完善的，但它又不僅僅是學習者對母語的翻譯。11.4 Linguistics and Syllabus Design Syllabus is the planning of a course of instruction. It is a description of the course content, teachi

39、ng procedures and learning experience. Syllabus design is of fundamental importance in language teaching. It serves as a bridge between language teaching theory and language teaching practice. A Clarification of TermsSyllabus:教學大綱 a syllabus is a specification of what takes place in the classroom, w

40、hich usually contains the aims and contents of teaching and sometimes contains suggestions of methodology.Curriculum: 課程計劃 the term curriculum is usually used in two senses. In a broad sense, it refers to the substance of a program of studies of an educational institution or system. For example, the

41、 school curriculum, the university curriculum, the curriculum of French schools, etc. in a narrow sense, it refers to the course of study or content in a particular subject, such as the mathematics curriculum or history curriculum. The narrow sense is usually used interchangeably with syllabus. Majo

42、r factors in syllabus designSelecting participantsBefore the training program starts, it is necessary to specify the characteristics of the learner and select individuals who match those specifications. 在培訓計劃開始前要確定學習者的特征并且挑選出那些符合特定要求的學習者.Process In most cases, the process of syllabus design in forei

43、gn language teaching mainly includes selecting and grading what is to be taught. Selection involves two sub-processes:1: the restriction of the language to a particular dialect and register;2: the criteria such as frequency of occurrence, learnability and classroom needsAfter a list of language item

44、s have been selected, the next process is to put them into the most appropriate order for practical teaching purposes. This process is often referred to as grading which is subdivided into two distinct operations. We shall use the term “staging” to refer to the division of the course into time segme

45、nts, and “sequencing” to refer to the problem of deciding the order in which the items should be taught.Evaluation 評估At the end of the training programme, it is necessary to find out whether and to what degree the learners have reached the teaching objectives. There are two different kinds of evalua

46、tion:Internal evaluation which checks whether and to what degree the programme has taught what it meant to teach;External evaluation which tries to find out whether and to what degree the programme is useful to the learners in their word. The two kinds of evaluation provide feedback to the whole tra

47、ining programme. Types of syllabusStructural Syllabus 結構教學大綱Situational Syllabus 情景教學大綱Influenced by structuralist linguistics, the structural syllabus is a syllabus for the teaching of a language which is based on a selection of the grammatical items and structure, e.g. tenses, grammatical rules, s

48、entence patterns, which occur in a language and the arrangement of them into an order suitable for teaching. The linguistic units in a sentence may appear in slots: My friend sent me a birthday card last week. This pattern is probably followed by group of substitutional words, also put into slots:My

49、 sister brought him a new hat yesterdayTeacher lent the girl a dictionary on Sunday.Thus by substituting new elements in one or other of the slots, learners practice the same sentence pattern repeatedly until they can produce it automatically.Its drawbacks: it only concentrates on the grammatical fo

50、rms and the meaning of individual words, but neglects the meaning of the whole context. Students cant use the forms theyve learned appropriately in concrete situations. Situational syllabus is a syllabus which selects, organizes and presents language items based on situations, e.g. at the bank, at t

51、he supermarket, at home, etc.The situational syllabus does not have a solid theoretical foundation, but the situationalists accept the view that language is used for communication. The aim of it is to specify the situations in which the target language is used. Usually, the grammatical forms and sen

52、tence patterns are introduced and practiced in well-knitted dialogues which may take place in certain situations.The situational syllabus sets out to meet the learners communicative need, but it is still essentially grammatical. The situations described in a textbook cannot be truly authentic and th

53、e arrangement of the syllabus is not systematic. Notional-functional Syllabus 意念-功能教學大綱Communicative Syllabus 交際教學大綱Compared to the situational syllabus, the notional-functional syllabus has a much stronger theoretical basis it is directly influenced by Hallidays functional grammar and Hymes theory

54、of communicative competence. The concept of Notion refers to the meaning one wants to convey, while that of Function refers to what one can do with the language. For example, while saying “Would you please tell me how to get to the library?” the speaker expresses the notion o inquiry and performs th

55、e function of asking the way.What the notional-functional syllabus wants the learner to acquire is, first, the knowledge of language structures, and second, the ability to using them in different situations to express ideas. A communicative syllabus aims at the learners communicative competence. It

56、teaches the language need to express and understand different kinds of functions, and emphasizes the process of communication. There are ten components of a communicative syllabus proposed by Yalden. Fully communicative Syllabus 完全的交際教學大綱Tasked-based Syllabus 任務型教學大綱The fully communicative syllabus

57、stresses that linguistic competence is only a part of communicative competence. If we focus on communicative skills, most areas of linguistic competence will be developed naturally. Therefore, what we should teach is communication through language rather than language for communication. It is sugges

58、ted that fully communicative teaching should do away with well-planned syllabuses. What should be decided is the problem of communication to be solved, and the teacher should involve his students into activities in which they imitate his use of language consciously or unconsciously. If the teacher c

59、an well direct this process, language learning will take care of itself.Task-based syllabuses are more concerned with the classroom processes which stimulate learning than with the language knowledge or skills that students are supposed to master. These syllabuses consist of a list of specification of the tasks and acti