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1、dna length polymorphisms蘇州大學(xué)法醫(yī)系蘇州大學(xué)法醫(yī)系 xrepeated dna tandems satellite dna refers to long repeat units of hundreds to thousands of bp. often found surrounding the centromere. minisatellite or vntr have a core repeat unit of 10-100 bp (d1s80) microsatellite or str have repeat units 2-6 bp.rflp analys

2、is rflp restriction fragment length polymorphism; for related dna molecules, a difference in dna fragment sizes after restriction enzyme digestion difference results from presence of different dna sequences certain regions of genome are highly variablerflp基本技術(shù) dna的提取 re消化 瓊脂糖電泳分離 印跡轉(zhuǎn)移 探針選擇 探針的標(biāo)記 分子雜

3、交 譜帶顯示dna extractedrestrictionenzymeproducesfragmentsdouble-strandedfragmentsseparated byelectrophoresistransfer from gelto membrane radioactivelylabeled probein single strand formdevelop film,dnatypingpattern appearsvisualizebandingby exposureto x-ray filmwash toremoveexcessprobedenaturedto single

4、strandedfragmentscover membrane with probe, incubate the basis of rflp analysis environmental effects on rflp testsconditions sunlight, moderate temp. hot, humid weather no sunlight, hot weather gas, oil, detergent, acid, base, salt, bleach, non-human dna soilcan be tested-up to 6 weeks-10 days or l

5、ess -5 months or more -no effect-precludes teststep 1 dna的提取dna的純化 有機(jī)溶劑萃取、乙醇沉淀 柱層析過(guò)濾法 凝膠柱層析技術(shù)step 1 dna的提取的提取dna 的定量 瓊脂糖凝膠電泳結(jié)合溴乙錠熒光測(cè)定法 紫外分光光度法 dna探針雜交法step 1 dna的提取的提取step 2 re 消化step 2 re 消化消化 also called restriction enzymes occur naturally in bacteria hundreds are purified and available commercial

6、ly named for bacterial genus, species, strain, and typeexample:ecorigenus: escherichiaspecies: colistrain: rrestriction endonucleasesstep 2 re 消化消化 recognize specific base sequences in dna cut dna at those recognition sitesrestriction endonucleasesstep 2 re 消化消化 enzymes recognize specific 4-8 bp seq

7、uencesecori5gaattc33cttaag5 recognition sites have symmetry some enzymes cut in a staggered fashion some enzymes cut in a direct fashionpvuii5cagctg33gtcgac5restriction enzyme recognition sitestep 2 re 消化消化restriction endonucleases cut dna molecules at defined positionsstep 2 re 消化消化3、飲食相關(guān)因素:肝癌的發(fā)生與生

8、活習(xí)慣息息相關(guān)。長(zhǎng)期進(jìn)食霉變食物、含亞硝胺食物、微量元素硒缺乏也是促發(fā)肝癌的重要因素。黃曲霉毒b1是目前已被證明有明確致癌作用的物質(zhì),主要存在于霉變的糧食中,如玉米、花生、大米等。另外當(dāng)攝食大量的含有亞硝酸鹽的食物,亞硝酸鹽在體內(nèi)蓄積不能及時(shí)排出,可以在體內(nèi)轉(zhuǎn)變成亞硝胺類物質(zhì),亞硝酸鹽含量較高的食物以煙熏或鹽腌的肉制品為著,具有明確的致癌作用。同時(shí)肝癌的發(fā)生也與遺傳因素、寄生蟲感染等因素相關(guān)。1 臨床表現(xiàn)臨床表現(xiàn)疾病癥狀疾病癥狀肝癌的早期表現(xiàn)很不典型,往往容易被忽視。以下癥狀可供參考: 1、食欲明顯減退:腹部悶脹,消化不良,有時(shí)出現(xiàn)惡心、嘔吐; 2、右上腹隱痛:肝區(qū)可有持續(xù)性或間歇性疼痛,有時(shí)

9、可因體位變動(dòng)而加重; 3、乏力、消瘦、不明原因的發(fā)熱及水腫; 4、黃疸、腹水、皮膚瘙癢; 5、常常表現(xiàn)為鼻出血、皮下出血等。 肝癌的一些典型癥狀只有疾病進(jìn)展到中晚期時(shí)才會(huì)發(fā)生,而那時(shí)往往已經(jīng)喪失手術(shù)機(jī)會(huì),因此平時(shí)的自我檢查非常重要。當(dāng)感覺(jué)疲憊乏力持續(xù)不能緩解時(shí),很可能是肝病的預(yù)兆;心窩處沉悶感,或是腹部右上方感覺(jué)鈍痛,有壓迫感和不適感等,體重減輕,時(shí)有原因不明的發(fā)燒及出現(xiàn)黃疸,應(yīng)盡早前往醫(yī)院檢查。1-2 診斷鑒別診斷鑒別檢查主要包括血清甲胎蛋白(afp)和肝臟影像學(xué)檢查。甲胎蛋白是目前常用的,也最簡(jiǎn)單實(shí)用。我國(guó)60%以上肝癌病例的血清afp400 g/l,95%的肝癌患者具有乙肝病毒(hbv)

10、感染的背景,10%有丙肝病毒(hcv)感染背景,還有部分患者h(yuǎn)bv和hcv重疊感染,因此如果在病毒性肝病基礎(chǔ)上合并afp 400 g/l應(yīng)該高度懷疑肝癌可能,盡早完善影像學(xué)相關(guān)檢查,做到早發(fā)現(xiàn)、早診斷、早治療。 現(xiàn)代醫(yī)學(xué)影像學(xué)手段也為肝癌的診斷提供了很大的幫助,為肝癌的定位、定性、定量、定期和制定治療方案提供了可靠的依據(jù)。 1、最常用的是肝臟超聲檢查,超聲檢查為非侵入性檢查,對(duì)人體組織無(wú)任何不良影響,其操作簡(jiǎn)單、直觀準(zhǔn)確、費(fèi)用低廉、方便無(wú)創(chuàng)、廣泛普及,可用于肝癌的普查和治療后隨訪。 2、ct已經(jīng)成為肝癌診斷的重要常規(guī)手段。腹部ct增強(qiáng)掃描可清楚地顯示肝癌的大小、數(shù)目、形態(tài)、部位、邊界、腫瘤血供

11、豐富程度,以及與肝內(nèi)管道的關(guān)系,對(duì)于進(jìn)一步明確診斷,與其他良性肝臟占位相鑒別,同時(shí)明確肝癌的分期分級(jí),對(duì)于指導(dǎo)治療及判斷預(yù)后有重要意義。通過(guò)影像分析軟件還可以對(duì)肝臟內(nèi)各管道進(jìn)行重建,可以精確到各肝段血管的走行,腫瘤與血管的關(guān)系,模擬手術(shù)切除平面,測(cè)算預(yù)切除腫瘤的體積和剩余肝體積,極大的提高手術(shù)安全性。 3、肝臟特異性mri能夠提高小肝癌檢出率,同時(shí)對(duì)肝癌與肝臟局灶性增生結(jié)節(jié)、肝腺瘤等的鑒別有較大幫助,可以作為ct檢查的重要補(bǔ)充。 4、pet(正電子發(fā)射計(jì)算機(jī)斷層掃描)-ct全身掃描可以了解整體狀況和評(píng)估腫瘤轉(zhuǎn)移情況,更能全面判斷腫瘤分期及預(yù)后,但是價(jià)格較為昂貴,一般不作為首選檢查。 最好的專業(yè)

12、文檔,免費(fèi)在線瀏覽,下載后可以修改編輯,歡迎下載收藏。products generated by restriction enzymescohesive end cutters (staggered cuts):enzyme recognition site ends of dna after cutecori5gaattc35gaattc33cttaag53cttaa g5psti5ctgcag35ctgca g33gacgtc53gacgtc5blunt end cutters (direct cuts):enzyme recognition site ends of dna after

13、cuthaeiii5ggcc3 5gg cc33ccgg5 3cc gg5step 2 re 消化消化digestion of dna with different restriction endonucleasesthe same sticky ends produced by different enzymesstep 2 re 消化消化agatctwild-type allelemutant alleletctagaa single nucleotide change can make a differenceagagcttctcgarestriction sitenot a restr

14、iction sitestep 2 re 消化消化step 3 電 泳電 泳 瓊脂糖凝膠電泳 100 bp 60 kb 的大片斷dna 聚丙烯酰胺凝膠電泳 5 500 bp 的小片斷dnastep 3 電電 泳泳step 4 印跡轉(zhuǎn)移 rflp 技術(shù)step 5 探針的選擇dna 探針 dna 探針是一條較短的已知序列的dna單鏈。rflp探針是小衛(wèi)星dna的核心序列串聯(lián)重復(fù)的多聚體片斷step 5 探針的選擇探針的選擇dna fingerprintingdetermination of an individuals unique collection of dna restriction f

15、ragmentscollect tissue samplehow to do dna fingerprintingthe big picture1000 cellspcr analysisrflp / southern blot20 cellswhat they often look like.incomplete digestdna 紋印which suspect, a or b, cannotbe excluded frompotential perpetratorsof this assault?minisatellite vntr alleles (400-1000 bp) can e

16、xhibit preferential amplification.step 6 探針的標(biāo)記探針的標(biāo)記 同位素標(biāo)記法 非同位素標(biāo)記法 半抗原類標(biāo)記法 生物素類標(biāo)記法 酶標(biāo)法step 7 分子雜交分子雜交 概念:特異性探針與待測(cè)dna 在復(fù)性條件下形成穩(wěn)定異源dna雙鏈的過(guò)程 步驟 預(yù)雜交: 雜交 離子強(qiáng)度:以na離子中和dna的負(fù)電荷 探針濃度: 探針長(zhǎng)度 雜交溫度 洗膜 多基因座探針采用5ssc液 單基因座探針采用0.1ssc液 1ssc液:0.15mol/l氯化鈉和0.015mol/l檸檬酸鈉step 8 譜帶顯示 x光片感光 定影 顯影amp-flpamp-flp amplified f

17、ragment length polymorphismsshort tandem repeats(strs)str region of dna containing tandem copies of di-, tri- or tetranucleotide repeat units. examples:dinucleotide repeats: gtgtgtgtgtgttetranucleotide repeats: tatctatctatctrinucleotide repeats:acgacgacgacgshort tandem repeats (strs)the repeat regio

18、n is variable between samples while the flanking regions where pcr primers bind are constant7 repeatsaatghomozygote = both alleles are the same lengthheterozygote = alleles differ and can be resolved from one anothershort tandem repeats (str) repeating units of an identical (or similar) dna sequence

19、, where the repeat sequence is 2-6 base pairs in length. the repeat units are arranged in direct succession of each other, and the number of repeat units varies between individuals. nomenclature for str alleles: international society of forensic haemogenetics (isfh) issued guidelines in 1994 & 1

20、997 aid in reproducibility and comparison of datanomenclature for str alleles:choice of strand if within a coding region, coding strand should be used if not within a coding region, use the sequence first described in public database if nomenclature established prior to the guidelines, the original

21、nomenclature is maintained.th01: note that using the top strand versus the bottom strand results in different repeat motifs. 1 2 3 4 5 65-ttccc tcat tcat tcat tcattcat tcat caccatgga-33-aaggg agta agta agta agta agta agta agtggtaacct-5 6 5 4 3 2 1nomenclature for str alleles:choice of allele designa

22、tion number of repeats.number of bp in incomplete repeatex: a common microvariant of th01 is allele 9.39 tetranucleotide repeats and one incomplete repeat of three nucleotides.allelic ladder for d1s80manual gelallelic ladder on automated gelstr allele frequencies05101520253035404567899.310caucasians

23、 (n=427)blacks (n=414)hispanics (n=414)th01 marker*proc. int. sym. hum. id (promega) 1997, p. 34number of repeatsfrequency13 core str locilocus namelocationrepeat motifclassificationallele rangenumber of allelescsf1po5q33.3-34tagasimple6-1615fga4q28ctttcompound15-51.269tho111p15.5tcatsimple3-1420tpo

24、x2p23-ptergaatsimple6-1310vwa12p12-ptertctgtctacompound10-2428d3s13583ptctgtctacompound9-2020d5s8185q21-31agatsimple7-1610d7s8207q11.21-22gatasimple6-1522d8s11798tctatctgcompound8-1913d13s31713q22-31tatcsimple5-1514d16s53916q24-qtergatasimple5-1510d18s5118q21.3agaasimple7-2743d21s1121q21tctatctgcomp

25、lex24-387013 codis core str loci with chromosomal positionscsf1pod5s818d21s11th01tpoxd13s317d7s820d16s539d18s51d8s1179d3s1358fgavwaamelamelmale-specific y chromosome strs useful for analyzing male-female mixtures from sexual crimes.pcr 技術(shù)modern-day pcr methods are powerful tools for analyzing small

26、amounts and fragmented dna molecules. high sensitivity means that less than 1 ng of dna required for str multiplex analysis. high sensitivity means that avoiding contamination from extraneous dna is extremely important.extreme dna degradation can affect successful pcr amplification. pcr amplificatio

27、n requires that the template dna be intact at the site of primer annealing. pcr amplification requires that the template dna be intact between the primers for full extension.mutations mutations can occur at str loci most str mutations involve the gain or loss of a single repeat unit. can be difficul

28、t to determine from which parent contributed the mutant allele. low mutation rates are important for paternity testing.chemical inhibition of enzymes materials such as textile dyes or hemoglobin can inhibit enzymatic function. results can look like degraded dna.solutions to pcr inhibition remove the

29、 inhibitor by re-purifying the dna sample. dilute the effects of the inhibitor by: adding less sample volume; adding more dna polymerase; adding bovine serum albumin (bsa);in 32 cycles at 100% efficiency, 1.07 billion copies of targeted dna region are createdpcr copies dna exponentially through mult

30、iple thermal cyclesoriginal dna target regionthermal cyclethree steps denaturation annealing extentionstep 1: denaturation combine target sequence, dna primers template, dntps, taq polymerase target sequence: usually fewer than 3000 bp identified by a specific pair of dna primers- usually oligonucle

31、otides that are about 20 nucleotides heat to 95 degrees celsius to separate strands (for 0.5-2 minutes) longer times increase denaturation but decrease enzyme and templateq heat denatures dna by uncoiling the double helix strands.step 2: annealing decrease temperature by 15-25 degrees primers anneal

32、 to the end of the strand 0.5-2 minutes shorter time increases specificity but decreases yield requires knowledge of the base sequences of the 3 - endselecting a primerprimer length melting temperature (tm) specificity complementary primer sequences g/c content and polypyrimidine (t, c) or polypurin

33、e (a, g) stretches 3-end sequence single-stranded dnastep 3: extention5、選擇性肝動(dòng)脈造影是侵入性檢查,因肝癌富含血供,以肝動(dòng)脈供血為主,因此選擇肝動(dòng)脈造影可以明確顯示肝臟的小病灶及腫瘤血供情況,在明確診斷后還可以通過(guò)注射碘油來(lái)堵塞腫瘤供養(yǎng)血管達(dá)到治療目的,適用于其他檢查后仍未能確診的患者。有乙肝、丙肝的病人應(yīng)定期復(fù)查,如有可能應(yīng)每年查體,肝臟b超是最基礎(chǔ)的檢查。1-2 疾病治療疾病治療很多人聞癌色變,認(rèn)為肝癌是不治之癥,其實(shí)大可不必如此驚慌。目前,我國(guó)對(duì)于肝癌的防控取得了一定的成果。當(dāng)確診為肝癌時(shí),首先要端正心態(tài),正確客觀

34、對(duì)待。因?yàn)槟壳搬槍?duì)肝癌的治療方法較多,涉及到多個(gè)學(xué)科的共同協(xié)作,如果能夠得到正確合理的治療,肝癌遠(yuǎn)期療效還是比較理想的。肝癌治療總的原則是早期發(fā)現(xiàn)和早期診斷,強(qiáng)調(diào)實(shí)施規(guī)范化的綜合治療。 手術(shù)治療手術(shù)治療是肝癌首選的治療方法,通過(guò)完整的清除腫瘤組織,達(dá)到治愈的目的?,F(xiàn)代肝臟外科手術(shù)技術(shù)日益進(jìn)步,腫瘤大小并不是制約手術(shù)的關(guān)鍵因素。能否切除和切除的療效除了與腫瘤大小和數(shù)目有關(guān),還與肝臟功能、肝硬化程度、腫瘤部位、腫瘤界限、有無(wú)完整包膜及靜脈癌栓等有非常密切的關(guān)系。行手術(shù)切除的患者一般要求其一般情況良好,即沒(méi)有心臟、肺臟、腎臟等重要臟器的器質(zhì)性病變,肝功能正?;蚪咏#唧w需要客觀的肝功能儲(chǔ)備評(píng)估指

35、標(biāo),如黃疸水平、白蛋白水平、吲哚氰綠滯留率等指標(biāo),同時(shí)沒(méi)有肝外腫瘤轉(zhuǎn)移灶,腫瘤部位局限,而不是多發(fā)或彌漫性分布。早期肝癌手術(shù)切除后一年生存率達(dá)80%以上,五年生存率達(dá)50%以上。如在術(shù)后輔以綜合性治療,可以獲得更好的效果。 外科治療手段除了肝切除還可以選擇肝移植手術(shù),尤其對(duì)于那些合并肝硬化,肝功能失代償?shù)男「伟┗颊撸我浦彩中g(shù)是最佳的選擇。目前,我國(guó)每年大約開展4000例肝移植手術(shù),其中肝癌患者比例高達(dá)40%。關(guān)于肝癌肝移植的適應(yīng)證有很多標(biāo)準(zhǔn),主要關(guān)注腫瘤的大小、數(shù)目和有無(wú)血管侵潤(rùn)及淋巴結(jié)轉(zhuǎn)移。綜合來(lái)說(shuō),這些標(biāo)準(zhǔn)對(duì)于無(wú)大血管侵犯、淋巴結(jié)轉(zhuǎn)移及肝外轉(zhuǎn)移的要求比較一致,但對(duì)腫瘤的大小和數(shù)目的要求不

36、盡相同。我國(guó)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)與國(guó)際的肝癌肝移植標(biāo)準(zhǔn)相比擴(kuò)大了肝癌肝移植的適應(yīng)證范圍,超出標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的肝癌患者在接受肝移植治療后雖然最終可能會(huì)發(fā)生復(fù)發(fā)和轉(zhuǎn)移,但是其生活質(zhì)量和生存時(shí)間要明顯優(yōu)于其他治療方式,所以應(yīng)根據(jù)供受體的需求比例做出綜合判斷來(lái)選擇適應(yīng)證。 其它治療其它治療包括射頻消融、微波消融、高強(qiáng)度聚焦超聲、動(dòng)脈化療栓塞、酒精注射、冷凍治療、放療、分子靶向治療、免疫治療和中醫(yī)藥治療等,主要用于由于各種原因不能接受手術(shù)治療的患者。 其中,肝癌射頻消融或微波消融治療原理是利用微波或射頻的熱效應(yīng),通過(guò)組織中極性分子尤其是水分子的振蕩加熱肝組織,從而在靶區(qū)內(nèi)引起熱凝固,通俗點(diǎn)說(shuō)就是燒死腫瘤,能達(dá)到與肝癌切除、肝移植

37、相媲美的根治效果。適用于較小的單發(fā)肝癌,并遠(yuǎn)離重要血管,肝癌手術(shù)切除術(shù)后復(fù)發(fā)或肝功能儲(chǔ)備功能差不能耐受手術(shù)切除的肝癌患者。 肝動(dòng)脈介入栓塞化療即通過(guò)動(dòng)脈置管的方法到達(dá)肝動(dòng)脈,注入栓塞劑或抗癌藥,常用于不能手術(shù)切除的中晚期肝癌患者,能夠達(dá)到控制疾病延長(zhǎng)生存的目的。對(duì)于不宜作肝動(dòng)脈介入治療者和某些姑息性手術(shù)后患者,可采用聯(lián)合或序貫化療,但是肝癌對(duì)化療效果不佳,常達(dá)不到好的治療效果。 最近幾年問(wèn)世的新的分子靶向藥物索拉非尼可以延緩腫瘤進(jìn)展,能一定程度上延長(zhǎng)生存期,此次通過(guò)國(guó)內(nèi)外的臨床試驗(yàn)結(jié)果表明,索拉菲尼可以延長(zhǎng)患者生存時(shí)間達(dá)2-3個(gè)月,延緩疾病發(fā)展時(shí)間為73%,但該藥物價(jià)格較為昂貴,同時(shí)可能會(huì)伴有

38、腹瀉、皮疹、高血壓、手足綜合征等較嚴(yán)重不良反應(yīng),效果還需進(jìn)一步評(píng)價(jià)。1-3 疾病預(yù)防疾病預(yù)防迄今尚缺乏一種能夠適用于所有肝癌患者統(tǒng)一固定的治療方案,所以肝癌的治療應(yīng)該個(gè)體化,在每一例肝癌患者的治療中,都需要外科、影像科、介入科、腫瘤內(nèi)科等多學(xué)科相互補(bǔ)充和有機(jī)結(jié)合。早期治療方案的選擇將極大影響肝癌患者的預(yù)后。因此,早期發(fā)現(xiàn)、早期診斷、早期治療和預(yù)防工作顯得尤為重要。 對(duì)于35歲的男性、具有乙肝病毒(hbv)和(或)丙肝病毒(hcv)感染、嗜酒的高危人群,一般是每隔6個(gè)月進(jìn)行一次檢查。對(duì)afp400 g/l而超聲檢查未發(fā)現(xiàn)肝臟占位者,在排除妊娠、活動(dòng)性肝病以及生殖腺胚胎源性腫瘤后應(yīng)進(jìn)行ct和(或)

39、磁共振成像(mri)等檢查。如afp出現(xiàn)升高但并未達(dá)到診斷水平,除了應(yīng)該排除上述可能引起afp增高的情況外,還應(yīng)密切追蹤afp的動(dòng)態(tài)變化,將超聲檢查間隔縮短至12個(gè)月,需要時(shí)進(jìn)行ct和(或)mri檢查。若高度懷疑肝癌,則建議進(jìn)行數(shù)字減影血管造影(dsa)肝動(dòng)脈碘油造影檢查。應(yīng)高度警惕厭食、乏力、精神差、長(zhǎng)時(shí)間低熱、水腫、肝區(qū)疼痛等癥狀,做到早發(fā)現(xiàn)。 在日常生活中要注意以下幾點(diǎn): 1 避免情緒波動(dòng),保持樂(lè)觀的精神狀態(tài),應(yīng)盡量避免或減少引起情緒波動(dòng)的各種刺激活動(dòng); 2 避免過(guò)度勞累:過(guò)度的腦力或體力勞動(dòng)不僅可使肝癌患者機(jī)體的抵抗力降低,促使癌癥的復(fù)發(fā)或轉(zhuǎn)移,而且可加重肝功損害,導(dǎo)致病情惡化; 最好

40、的專業(yè)文檔,免費(fèi)在線瀏覽,下載后可以修改編輯,歡迎下載收藏。amplificationmultiplex pcr over 10 markers can be copied at once sensitivities to levels less than 1 ng of dna ability to handle mixtures and degraded samples different fluorescent dyes used to distinguish str alleles with overlapping size rangesamelogenind19d3d8th01vwa

41、d21fgad16d18d2amelogenind19d3d8th01vwad21fgad16d18d2two different individualsdna size (base pairs)results obtained in less than 5 hours with a spot of blood the size of a pinheadprobability of a random match: 1 in 3 trillion human identity testing with multiplex strssimultaneous analysis of 10 strs

42、and genderampflstr sgm plus kitcommercial str multiplex kitskit namecompanystr locipower of discriminationampfistr sgm pluspe applied biosystemd3s1358, d16ss5391:3.3 x 1012d2s1338, amelolgenind8s1179,. d21s11d18s51, d19s433tho1, fgapowerplex 2.1promegad3s11358, tho1,!:8.5 x 1010d21s11, d18s51, vwad8

43、s1179, tpox, fgapenta epower plex 16promegacsf1po, fga, tpox, 1:1.8 x 1017tho1, vwa, d3s1358,d5s818, d7s820, d13s317, d16s539,d18s51, d21s11pentad, pentae amelogeninabi prism 310 genetic analyzerabi prism 310 genetic analyzer automated gel pouringautomated sample injectioncapillary electrophoresis with multi-color detection capabilitiesclose-up of abi p

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