禮貌2--面子理論

1、Politeness in Conversation 2- politeness is one of the various rational behaviors of a Model Person to satisfy ones face wantsGoffman the notion of faceo Goffman proposes the “face” theory and defines “face” as “the positive social value a person effectively claims for himself by the line others ass

2、ume he has taken during a particular contact. Face is an image of self delineated in terms of approved social attributes.” o - 1967Face- worko the fundamental idea:o people living in a society do their best to save their face and not to lose it. It must be noted that face is a very fragile element t

3、hat can be easily damaged by others. Therefore, when people communicate with each other, all participants are in charge of maintaining not only their own face, but also other peoples face. Establishing Faceo Face is located in flow of eventso - feelings about face reinforced by encounterso - if bett

4、er face is established feel goodo - if expectations are not fulfiled feel bad or hurto - Neutral experience expected, not memorableKinds of Faceo Rituals Greetings & Closingso Corrective Process Repair & Apologyo Avoidance Process Prevant Threats to Faceo Poise Control EmbarrassmentPositive

5、Faceo One cano Have faceo Be in faceo Maintain faceo Given faceo Save faceWrong Faceo One can alsoo Be in wrong faceo Be out of faceo Both result in feeling shame & inferiorBrown and Levinsono Universals in Language Usage: Politeness Phenomena (1978)o Politeness: Some Universals of Language Usag

6、e (1987)o face FTA FST Brown and Levinson o face is “means the public self-image that every member wants to claim for himself or herself, or the emotional and social sense of self that everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize. In their view, face is divided into two categories: positive f

7、ace and negative face. o negative face: or the rights to territories, freedom of action and freedom from imposition; essentially the want that your actions be not impeded by others. (negative face is the desire to be unimpeded in ones actions. )o 負(fù)面面子（消極面子）指由自主的權(quán)利，行動(dòng)的自由，或者自我行為不受別人的干涉與阻礙。o positive f

8、ace： is the desire (in some respects) to be approved of. o 正面面子（積極面子）指希望得到別人的贊同、喜愛以及認(rèn)同。Face- Threatening Acts (FTA)o According to Brown and Levinson, some illocutionary acts speakers perform are intrinsically face-threatening acts (FATs) because they run contrary to either their own face wants or ot

9、hers of their hearers.The Types of Face-threatening ActsAccording to Brown and Levinson ,a distinction can be made between (i) FTAs which threaten the hearers positive face and negative face;(ii) FTAs which threaten the hearers face and the speakers face. The Types of Face-threatening ActsNegative F

10、ace Threatening Acts: Negative face is threatened when an individual does not avoid or intend to avoid the obstruction(阻礙阻礙） of their interlocutors(對話者）對話者） freedom of action.Damage to the Hearers negative face:1. An act that affirms or denies a future act of the hearer creates pressure on the heare

11、r to either perform or not perform the act.Examples: orders, requests, suggestions, advice, remindings, threats, or warnings.2. An act that expresses some positive future act of the speaker toward the hearer. In doing so, pressure has been put on the hearer to accept or reject the act and possibly i

12、ncur a debt. Examples: offers, and promises.3. An act that expresses the speakers sentiments of the hearer or the hearers belongings.Examples: compliments, expressions of envy or admiration, or expressions of strong negative emotion toward the hearer (e.g. hatred, anger, lust).o Damage to the Speake

13、rs negative face:o An act that shows that the speaker is succumbing to（屈服于） the power of the hearerExample: (s-h)o Expressing thankso Accepting a thank you or apologyo Excuseso Acceptance of offerso A response to the hearers violation of social etiquette（違反社交禮節(jié)）o The speaker commits himself to somet

14、hing he or she does not want to doo Positive Face Threatening Acts: Positive face is threatened when the speaker or hearer does not care about their interactors feelings, wants, or does not want what the other wantso Damage to the Hearers positive face: 1. An act that expresses the speakers negative

15、 assessment of the hearers positive face . Examples: expressions of disapproval , disagreements, or challenges.o 2. those that show S doesnt care about Hs positive faceo Example: expressions of irreverence, mention of taboo topics, bringing of bad news about H, or good news about S (boasting)o 3. th

16、ose in which S shows non-cooperation in an activity, o Example: interrupting Hs talk disrespect, mention of topics which are inappropriate in general or in the context.o 4. those in which S uses address terms and other status -marked identifications in initial encounters in an offensive or embarrass

17、ing way, intentionally or accidentally.Damage to the Speakers positive face: An act that shows that in some sense the speaker is wrong and unable to control himself.Example:oApologies: In this act, speaker is damaging his own face by admitting that he regrets one of his previous acts.oAcceptance of

18、a complimentoInability to control ones physical activitiesoInability to control ones emotional activitiesoSelf-humiliationoConfessionsDefinitionThey are used to formulate messages in order to save the hearers or speakers face when face-threatening acts are inevitable or desired. Being polite is “A b

19、attery of social skills to ensure everyone feels affirmed in a social interaction. Politeness Strategiesstrategies for doing FTA (politeness strategies)Do the FTA on recordoff record without repressive action, baldly with repressive action positive politenessnegative politeness Dont do the FTABald O

20、n-recordDefinition Bald on-record strategies , although there are ways that bald on-record politeness can be used in trying to minimze FTAs implicitly. Often , and so this strategy is most often utilized in situations where the Different situations and examplesuInstances in which threat minimizing d

21、oes not occur Great urgency or desperation e.g. Watch out!uSpeaking as if great efficiency is necessary e.g. Hear me out:. Listen ,I ;ve got an idea.uTask-oriented e.g. Pass me the hammer.uLittle or no desire to maintain someones face e.g. Dont forget to clean the blinds!uDoing the FTA is in the int

22、erest of the hearer e.g. Your headlights are on!uInstances in which the threat is minimized implicitly e.g. Welcomes Come in.uOffers e.g. Leave it, Ill clean up later. Eat! Positive PolitenessDefinition Positive politeness strategies seek to minimize the threat to the hearers positive face. They are

23、 used to .In addition to hedging and attempts to avoid conflict, some strategies of positive politeness include Different situations and examplesu Attend to Hs interests, needs, wants e.g. You look sad. Can I do anything?u Use solidarity in-group identity markers e.g. Heh, mate, can you lend me a do

24、llar?uBe optimistic e.g. Ill just come along, if you dont mind.Include both speaker (S) and hearer (H) in activity e.g. If we help each other, I guess, well both sink or swim in this course.uOffer or promise e.g. If you wash the dishes, Ill vacuum the floor.uExaggerate his interests in H e.g. Thats

25、a nice haircut you got; where did you get it?uAvoid Disagreement e.g. Yes, its rather long; not short certainly.uJoke e.g. Wow, thats a whopper! Negative PolitenessDefinition Negative politeness strategies are oriented towards the hearers negative face and . These strategies presume that the speaker

26、 will be imposing on the listener and there is than in bald on record strategies and positive politeness strategies. Negative face is the desire , through distancing styles like apologies.Different situations and examplesu Be indirect e.g. Would you know where Oxford Street is?u. Use hedges or quest

27、ions e.g. Perhaps, he might have taken it, maybe. uBe pessimistic e.g. You couldnt find your way to lending me 1000 dollars, could you?uMinimize the imposition e.g. can you please pass the salt?uUse plural pronouns e.g. We regret to inform you.Apologize e.g. Im sorry; its a lot to ask, but can you l

28、end me a thousand dollars?Off- record strategyo What a hot day ! (i.e. How about a drink? )o A: what do you think about Harry? B: Nothing wrong with him. (i.e. I dont think hes very good.)Harrys a real fish. (i.e. He swims like a fish.)What can I say? (i.e. Nothing, its too bad.)Payoffs Associated w

29、ith each Strategy1. No redressive action : S gets credit of honesty, outspokenness. S avoids danger of being misunderstood.2. Positive politeness : S considers to be of the same kind with H.3. Negative politeness : Avoid future debt by keeping social distance. S satisfies Hs desires to be unimpeded.4. Off record : Avoid responsibility for potentially face-damaging interpretation. Test Hs feelings towards S.5. Dont do the FTA : S avoids offending H at all. S also fails to achieve his desired comminication.Sociological VariablesThe degree of FTA