西方經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)重點(diǎn)-中英文(共9頁(yè))

1、精選優(yōu)質(zhì)文檔-傾情為你奉上Represents描述 Define定義 Demonstrate論證Topic 1AOpportunity cost機(jī)會(huì)成本The highest-valued alternative that we give up to get something Þ the opportunity cost of the activity chosen.我們?yōu)榱说玫揭恍〇|西而放棄的Explicit cost 顯性成本 is a cost that involves actually laying out money.花錢Implicit cost 隱性成本 does

2、not require an outlay of money; it is measured by the value, in dollar terms, of the benefits that are forgone. 非實(shí)質(zhì)性Marginal Benefit邊際收益 指如果再多銷售一單位的產(chǎn)品將會(huì)得到的收益，或目前最后賣出的一單位的產(chǎn)品所得到的收益。邊際收益在實(shí)現(xiàn)利潤(rùn)最大化中是一個(gè)非常重要的經(jīng)濟(jì)量，一般認(rèn)為當(dāng)邊際收益等于邊際成本時(shí)企業(yè)達(dá)到利潤(rùn)最大化Marginal Cost 邊際成本is the change in the total cost that arises

3、 when the quantity produced has an increment by unit.指的是每一單位新增生產(chǎn)的產(chǎn)品（或者購(gòu)買的產(chǎn)品）帶來(lái)的總成本的增量 MC > MR Þ an incentive to do less of that activity少刺激消費(fèi)活動(dòng) MB> MC Þ an incentive to do more of that activity多刺激消費(fèi)活動(dòng)Production Possibilities Frontier PPF生產(chǎn)可能性邊界 is a graph representing production trad

4、eoffs of an economy given fixed resources(假設(shè)、概念、圖、移動(dòng)）用來(lái)表示經(jīng)濟(jì)社會(huì)在既定資源和技術(shù)條件下所能生產(chǎn)的各種商品最大數(shù)量的組合，反映了資源稀缺性與選擇性的經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)特征Topic 2ALaw of demand需求法則Other things remaining the same, the higher the price of a good/service, the smaller is the quantity demanded. 假設(shè)其他因素不變，當(dāng)一物品價(jià)格增加，其需求量會(huì)下降Law of supply 供給法則Other thi

5、ngs remaining the same, the higher the price of a good/service, the greater is the quantity supplied. 假設(shè)其他因素不變，當(dāng)一件物品的相對(duì)價(jià)格上升時(shí)，其供給量會(huì)上升Equilibrium 平衡It means no shortage or surplus in the market.市場(chǎng)中沒(méi)有短缺或過(guò)剩平衡點(diǎn)Factors that bring changes in demand. 使需求變化的因素Income，Climate水土,氣候，Age of the people，Technology，

6、Price of substitutes替代品，Advertising，Prices of related goods ，Expected future prices，Expected future income，Preferences偏好，Population Factors that bring changes in supply. 使供給變化的因素。Climate水土,氣候，Technology，Expectations of producers生產(chǎn)者期望，Expected future prices，The number of suppliers，Prices of the facto

7、rs of productionShifts in demand curve and shifts in supply curve需求曲線的變動(dòng)和供給曲線的變動(dòng)Substitutes and Complements替代品和互補(bǔ)品Diminishing Marginal Returns邊際效用遞減規(guī)律is the decrease in the marginal (incremental) output of a production process as the amount of a single factor of production&#

8、160;is incrementally increased, while the amounts of all other factors of production stay constant.指在投入生產(chǎn)要素后，每單位生產(chǎn)要素所能提供的產(chǎn)量增加發(fā)生遞減的現(xiàn)象。消費(fèi)者剩余（Consumer Surplus）是指購(gòu)買者的支付意愿減去購(gòu)買者的實(shí)際支付量。Topic 2BPrice Elasticity of Demand需求價(jià)格彈性measures the responsiveness of the quantity demanded to a change in price.衡量需求的數(shù)量隨

9、商品的價(jià)格的變動(dòng)而變動(dòng)的情況。Price Elasticity of supply供給價(jià)格彈性measures the responsiveness of the quantity supplied to a change in price. 指供給量相對(duì)價(jià)格變化作出的反應(yīng)程度。Elastic, Unit elastic, Inelastic, Perfectly elastic, Perfectly inelastic （根據(jù)彈性系數(shù)、圖形判斷）彈性、 單位彈性、 非彈性，完全具有彈性，完全無(wú)彈性（根據(jù)彈性系數(shù)、圖形判斷）需求價(jià)格彈性系數(shù)= 需求量變動(dòng)的百分比/ 價(jià)格變動(dòng)的百分比。設(shè)：Q 表

10、示一種商品的需求量；P 表示該商品的價(jià)格；DQ表示需求量變動(dòng)值； DP表示價(jià)格變動(dòng)的數(shù)值；Ed表示價(jià)格彈性系數(shù)，則： Ed=(Q/Q)/(P/P）彈性與價(jià)格、收益的關(guān)系 一般降價(jià)促銷的商品都是需求彈性大于1的,如手機(jī),服裝,奢侈品;生活必備品一般是彈性小于1的,如食鹽。生活必需品的需求的價(jià)格彈性較小，非必需品的需求的價(jià)格彈性較大恩格爾定律(Engel's law)  is an observation in economics stating that as income rises, the proportion of in

11、come spent on food falls, even if actual expenditure on food rise.一個(gè)家庭收入越少，家庭收入中（或總支出中）用來(lái)購(gòu)買食物的支出所占的比例就越大。Topic 3Characteristics of each market structures每個(gè)市場(chǎng)結(jié)構(gòu)特征Perfect competition（完全競(jìng)爭(zhēng)）: demand curve需求曲線、Short-run Decision短期決策是指企業(yè)為有效地組織現(xiàn)在的生產(chǎn)經(jīng)營(yíng)活動(dòng)，合理利潤(rùn)經(jīng)濟(jì)資源，以期在不遠(yuǎn)的將來(lái)取得最佳的經(jīng)濟(jì)效益而進(jìn)行的決策Long-run De

12、cision長(zhǎng)期決策Perfect competitive market 完全自由競(jìng)爭(zhēng)市場(chǎng) 買賣眾多Many buyers and sellers.產(chǎn)品同質(zhì)All firm selling identical products.進(jìn)出自由No barriers to new firms entering the market. Sellers and buyers are well informed about prices Perfect information 信息完全Monopoly 壟斷 One supplier Produces a good or service for which

13、there are no close substitutes High barriers to entry Firm is a price makerMonopolistic Competition 壟斷競(jìng)爭(zhēng)Features of both competition and monopoly A large number of firms.Each firm produces a differentiated product.Product Differentiation: Firms compete on product quality, price, marketing and brandi

14、ng. Monopolistic competitive firms seek to differentiate their products in any one, or a combinationOligopoly 寡頭High barriers to entry A small number of firms Firms are price makersInterdependency Temptation to cooperate/collude, to increase joint profit.opportunity cost：機(jī)會(huì)成本，需考慮sunk cost：沉沒(méi)成本，不受決策影

15、響的成本，表現(xiàn)為過(guò)去已經(jīng)支付費(fèi)用或根據(jù)過(guò)去的決策將來(lái)必須支付的費(fèi)用。Fixed cost：固定成本，不隨產(chǎn)量變化而變化Variable cost：可變成本，隨產(chǎn)量增加而增加長(zhǎng)期中，沒(méi)有固定成本與可變成本之分Shut-down point停止?fàn)I業(yè)點(diǎn)Ø The firm is indifferent between producing and shutting down temporarily.Ø The output and price at which the firm just covers its TVC.Ø P=AVC is at its minimum.&

16、#216; MC curve cuts AVC curve.Ø It incurs a loss equal to TFC.Monopoly(壟斷): 三級(jí)價(jià)格歧視Price Discrimination價(jià)格歧視 一級(jí)價(jià)格歧視：為每單位產(chǎn)品制定不同的銷售價(jià)格二級(jí)價(jià)格歧視：壟斷廠商根據(jù)不同的購(gòu)買數(shù)量確立的價(jià)格三級(jí)價(jià)格歧視：廠商對(duì)同一產(chǎn)品在不同的市場(chǎng)上對(duì)不同的消費(fèi)群體收取彈性價(jià)格。Selling different units of a good or service for different prices. Oligopoly(寡頭): The Kinked Demand Curve

17、 Model 彎折的需求曲線模型Topic 4AGDP, methods of measuring GDP(Gross Domestic Product)衡量國(guó)內(nèi)生產(chǎn)總值的方法Nominal(名義) GDP is the production of goods and services valued at current prices是用生產(chǎn)物品和勞務(wù)的當(dāng)年價(jià)格計(jì)算的全部最終產(chǎn)品的市場(chǎng)價(jià)值Real(實(shí)際) GDP is a macroeconomic measure of the value of economic output ad

18、justed for price changes 是用從前某一年作為基期的價(jià)格計(jì)算出來(lái)的當(dāng)年全部最終產(chǎn)品的市場(chǎng)價(jià)值Economic growth經(jīng)濟(jì)增長(zhǎng)is the increase in the market value of the goods and services produced by an economy over timeTopic 4BBusiness cycle經(jīng)濟(jì)周期is the periodic but irregular up-and-down movement in production.（概念、畫(huà)圖、解釋）Unem

19、ployment rate失業(yè)率is the percentage of the labour force that is unemployed.Four types of unemployment四種類型的失業(yè)Structural unemployment結(jié)構(gòu)性失業(yè) Frictional unemployment摩擦性失業(yè)Cyclical unemployment周期性失業(yè) Seasonal unemployment季節(jié)性失業(yè)Full employment充分就業(yè)is that when everyone who wishes to work at the going wage-rate f

20、or their type of labor is employed.( Natural rate of unemployment自然失業(yè)率)Topic 5Inflation通脹is an upward movement in the average level of prices. 指一般物價(jià)水平在某一時(shí)期內(nèi)，連續(xù)性地以相當(dāng)?shù)姆壬蠞q的狀態(tài)，又稱為物價(jià)上升。Difference between anticipated(預(yù)期) and unanticipated(非預(yù)期) inflation: Anticipated Inflation is inflation that has been,

21、on average, correctly forecast. While unanticipated Inflation, is Inflation that catches people by surprise.CPIConsumer Price Index消費(fèi)物價(jià)指數(shù)measures changes in the price level of a market basket of consumer goods and services purchased by households. 是反映與居民生活有關(guān)的產(chǎn)品及勞務(wù)價(jià)格統(tǒng)計(jì)出來(lái)

22、的物價(jià)變動(dòng)指標(biāo)，以百分比變化為表達(dá)形式。Demand pull inflation需求拉動(dòng)通貨膨脹 is inflation that results from an initial increase in aggregate demand. Cost push inflation成本推動(dòng)型的通貨膨脹is inflation that results from an initial increase in costs.Wage-price spiral工資-價(jià)格螺旋是一種工資提高了，商品售價(jià)也節(jié)節(jié)升高的現(xiàn)象。Topic 6Multiplier乘數(shù)and Multiplier effect乘數(shù)效

23、應(yīng)is a factor of proportionality that measures how much an endogenous variable changes in response to a change in some exogenous variable.Topic 7ATheories of International trade 國(guó)際貿(mào)易理論Theory of absolute advantage(絕對(duì)優(yōu)勢(shì)理論): A country has an absolute advantage over another in the pro

24、duction of a good if it can produce it with fewer resources (lower costs) than the other countryTheory of comparative advantage(比較優(yōu)勢(shì)理論)：A country has a comparative advantage over another in the production of a good if it can produce it at a lower opportunity cost(i.e. If it has to forgo less of othe

25、r goods in order to produce it)Balance of Payments(BOP) 國(guó)際收支平衡表: Current Account(經(jīng)常項(xiàng)目):  is one of the two components of its balance of payments.Main items: Goods，Services，Income，Current transfers(經(jīng)常項(xiàng)目轉(zhuǎn)移支付)Capital Account(資本項(xiàng)目): is one of two primary components of the balance of payme

26、nts.Main items: Capital transfers(固定資產(chǎn)所有權(quán)的轉(zhuǎn)移)Government&Other，Acquisition/disposal of non-produced, non-financial assets（各種無(wú)形資產(chǎn)如專利，版權(quán)，商標(biāo)，經(jīng)銷權(quán)以及租賃和其他可轉(zhuǎn)讓合同的交易。）Terms of Trade(貿(mào)易條件) ：The ratio of export prices to import prices. 進(jìn)出口比價(jià)指數(shù)=出口物價(jià)指數(shù)/進(jìn)口物價(jià)指數(shù)Trade barriers(貿(mào)易壁壘): Tariff關(guān)稅 Subsidies津貼（給本國(guó)出口企業(yè)）

27、 Quotas配額數(shù)量Embargoes禁運(yùn)數(shù)量 Cartels卡特爾 Nontariff barriers非關(guān)稅壁壘（技術(shù)壁壘、環(huán)保）Arguments in favor of restricting trade(限制貿(mào)易的爭(zhēng)論)： Infant industry argument To reduce reliance of foreign goods To prevent dumping傾銷 and other unfair trade practices To prevent the importation of harmful goods To reduce the influence

28、 of a trade on consumers tastes To take account of externalities To prevent the establishment of a foreign-based monopolyArguments in favor of free trade(支持自由貿(mào)易觀點(diǎn)): a) importance of international trade; 國(guó)際貿(mào)易的重要性Ø Increase exports lead to an increase GDP.Ø Increase in economic growth.Ø

29、 Increase in employment opportunities for locals.Ø Export-oriented industries have the opportunity to enter new markets allowing them to: grow in size; encouraging specialisation of tasks; economies of scale.b) problems of protection保護(hù)問(wèn)題&Arguments against trade protection支持反對(duì)貿(mào)易保護(hù)Protection

30、as second-best Retaliation報(bào)復(fù) Bureaucracy官僚主義Protection may allow firms to remain inefficient.效率低下Topic 7BExchange rates: The value of one currencys currency in terms of another countrys currency.Fixed exchange rate固定匯率（1944，布雷頓森林體系）A countrys government or central bank sets exchange ratesFloating ex

31、change rate浮動(dòng)匯率（1976，牙買加體系）Set by the interaction of the forces of demand and supply(1)Clean float: no government intervention 清潔浮動(dòng) (2)Dirty float: government intervention 骯臟浮動(dòng)Managed exchange rate管理匯率Basically set the demand and supply, but with intervention by central bank to influence the rate.De

32、mand and supply in exchange market(需求和供給的外匯市場(chǎng)): 能分別說(shuō)明以下3個(gè)因素對(duì)一國(guó)貨幣的需求、供給產(chǎn)生什么影響對(duì)匯率產(chǎn)生何種影響Interest rate利率Other things remaining the same, the higher the exchange rate, the smaller is the quantity of currency demanded in the exchange market. Export and import進(jìn)出口Other things remaining the same, the appreci

33、ation升值 of the currency increases the quantity of export，the depreciation貶值 of the currency decreases the quantity of import.Expected future exchange rate預(yù)期未來(lái)匯率的變動(dòng)Other things remaining the same, the higher the Expected future exchange rate, the bigger is the quantity of currency demanded in the exc

34、hange market. Using a diagram explain the concept of the Law of SupplyTopic 8Monetary policy instruments(貨幣政策工具):Reserve asset ratios法定準(zhǔn)備金率 (RARs) , Open market operations(OMOs)公開(kāi)市場(chǎng)操作 is an activity by a central bank to buy or sell government bonds on the open market.Easy mo

35、netary policy(寬松的貨幣政策)Aim: Provide economic stimulus, when the economy is in a recession,How: Central bank buys bonds ESA balances rise Cash Rate decreaseCredit availability & (MS) Interest rates decreaseTight monetary policy(從緊的貨幣政策): Aim: Slow the economy down, when the economy is overheating.

36、How: Central bank sells bonds ESA balances fall Cash Rate risesCredit availability & (MS) Interest rates riseTopic 9ABudget balance: budget surplus, budget deficit, balanced budget預(yù)算平衡： 財(cái)政預(yù)算盈余，預(yù)算赤字、 平衡預(yù)算Discretionary Fiscal Policy(審慎的財(cái)政政策): Changes in tax, spending policy requiring legislative,

37、or administrative action by the government or Parliament.Non-Discretionary Fiscal Policy(非審慎的財(cái)政政策): Built-in (Automatic) stabilisers自動(dòng)穩(wěn)定器 Progressive tax and累進(jìn)稅率制度 unemployment benefit systems 失業(yè)救濟(jì)制度Expansionary fiscal policy(擴(kuò)張性財(cái)政政策):Aim：To provide an economic stimulus and return economy to full em

38、ployment Use when a recessionary gap existsHow：Increase Government Expenditure Decrease Taxes Combination of both measuresEffect：Increases GDP Reduces recessionary gap Reduce unemployment Results in budget deficit if budget was balancedContractionary fiscal policy(緊縮性的財(cái)政政策): Aim：To slow the economy

39、down and return to full employment Use when a inflationary gap existsHow：Decrease Government Expenditure Increase Taxes Combination of both measuresEffect：Reduce GDP Reduces Inflationary gap Results in budget surplus if budget was balancedTopic 9B Microeconomic reform微觀經(jīng)濟(jì)改革Government policies which

40、deregulate, or re-regulate markets for goods, services or factors of production.Objectives of microeconomic reform微觀經(jīng)濟(jì)改革的目標(biāo)To raise the supply potential of the economyMicroeconomic reform aims to reduce interference with price signals in the labour and products markets in order to increase competiti

41、on and therefore enhancing allocative economic efficiency, operational efficiency, and dynamic efficiency.Stabilise external debt and increase the efficiency with which the capital stock is used, reducing demand on domestic saving without reducing living standards.Deregulation(解除管制)：is the removal o

42、f administrative processes which either formed a barrier to entry in a market or prevented a market from operating efficiently.ExampleTelecommunications Airlines (1990) Financial Sector (late 1980s)Privatization(私有化)： is the process of taking a GBE ( Government Business Enterprise) and putting it in

43、to public hands. Example： Prison system，Airports，ElectricityTariffs(關(guān)稅)：A tariff is a tax on an import. Under an agreement with APEC, many countries agreed to try and phase out all tariffsCompetition policy(競(jìng)爭(zhēng)政策):is that promotes or seeks to maintain market competition by regulating a

44、nti-competitive conduct by companies.Topic 10市場(chǎng)失靈Market Failure : The inability of an unregulated market to achieve allocative efficiency in all circumstances.表現(xiàn)：(1) there exists monopoly or imperfect competition market, make its are not always produce the most effective results.(2) the market

45、behavior of the externalities may produce negative spillover effect.(3) the market mechanism can guarantee the supply of public goods.(4) the incompleteness of the market information or asymmetry caused by the uncertainty in the economy.(5) market as a result of the income distribution effects on political or moral can't accept it.Public goods: Goods and se