建筑工程專業(yè)英語(yǔ)unit5

1、Lesson 5 Building Engineering SurveyingTEXT Surveying is one of the oldest activities of the civil engineering and remains a primary component of civil engineering. It is also one field that continues to undergo phenomenal changes due to technological developments in digital imaging and satellite po

2、sitioning. These modern surveying tools are not only revolutionizing regular surveying engineering tasks but are also impacting a myriad of applications in a variety of fields1. surveying 測(cè)量 digital 數(shù)字 myriad 無(wú)數(shù) Before any civil engineering project can be designed, a survey of the site must be made.

3、 Surveying means measuring and recording the earths surface with the greatest degree of accuracy possible by means of maps. Some engineering projects, for example, highways, dams, or tunnels, may require extensive surveying in order to determine the best and most economical location or route. accura

4、cy 準(zhǔn)確（度）、精確（度）a.最高級(jí) extensive:廣泛的 the best and most economical location or route：最佳和最經(jīng)濟(jì)的地點(diǎn)和路線 Modern surveying engineering encompasses several speciality areas. There are two kinds of surveying: plane and geodetic. The most primary area perhaps is plane surveying because it is so widely applied in e

5、ngineering and surveying practice. In plane surveying, we consider the fundamentals of measuring distance, angle, direction, and elevation. encompass : 包括 geodetic : 測(cè)地學(xué)的, 測(cè)量的 plane surveying : 平面測(cè)量 These measured quantities are then used to determine position, slope, area, and volume-the basic para

6、meters of civil engineering design and construction. Plane surveying is the measurement of the earths surface as though it were a flat surface without a curvature. Within areas of about 20 kilometers square-meaning a square, each side of which is 20 kilometers long-the effects of the earths curvatur

7、e are negligible relative to the positional accuracy2. For larger areas, however, a geodetic survey, which takes into account the curvature of the earth, must be made (Fig5.1).Fig5.1 The sketch map of the effects of the earths curvature on geodetic The different kinds of measurements in a survey inc

8、lude distances, elevations (heights of features within the area), boundaries (both man-made and natural), and other physical characteristics of the site. In plane surveying, the principal measuring device for distance is the steel tape（Fig5.2）. Fig5.2 Styles of end fasteners on steel tapes In Englis

9、h-speaking countries, it has replaced a rule called a chain which was either 66 or 100 feet long. The 66-foot-long chain gave speakers of English the acre, measuring ten square chains or 43,560 square feet as a measure of land area. The men who hold the steel tape during a survey are still usually c

10、alled chainmen. They generally level the tape by means of plumb bobs, which are lead weights attached to a line that give the direction of gravity. feet : 英尺 ，1英尺 = 30.48 厘米 : plumb bobs :鉛垂 When especially accurate results are required, other means of support, such as a tripod -a stand with three l

11、egs (Fig5.3) can be used. The indicated length of a steel tape is in fact exactly accurate only at a temperature of 20 centigrade（攝氏 度）, so temperature readings are often taken during a survey to correct（校正） distances by allowing for expansion or contraction of the tape. Fig5.3. The sketch map of tr

12、ipod Distances between elevations are measured in a horizontal plane. In the diagram alongside, the distance between the two hills is measured from points A to B rather than from points A to C to D to B (Fig5.4). When distances are being measured on a slope, a procedure called breaking chain is foll

13、owed. This means that measurements are taken with less than the full length of the tape（鋼卷尺）.Fig5.4. The distance between the two hills圖圖5.4 兩山之間的距離兩山之間的距離 Angles are measured in degrees of arc. Two different systems are in use . One is the sexagesimal system that employs 360,each degree consisting

14、of 60 minutes and each minute of 60 seconds. The other is the centesimal system that employs 400 grads, each grad consisting of 100 minutes and each minute of 100 seconds. A special telescopic instrument that gives more accurate readings of angles than the transit is called a theodolite (Fig5.5).Fig

15、 5.5 A theodolite In addition to cross hairs, transits and theodolites have markings called stadia hairs（視距絲） (Fig5.6). The stadia hairs are parallel to the horizontal cross hair（水平絲） . The transitman sights a rod, which is a rule with spaces marked at regular intervals. The stadia hairs are fixed t

16、o represent a distance that is usually a hundred times each of the marks on the rod. That is, when the stadia hairs are in line with a mark on the rod that reads 2.5, the transit is 250 meters from the rod. Stadia surveys are particularly useful in determining contour lines, the lines on a map that

17、enclose areas of equal elevation.Fig5.6 Markings of transits and theodolites Contour maps can be made in the field by means of a plane-table alidade. The alidade is a telescope with a vertical circle and stadia hairs. It is mounted on a straightedged metal plate that can be kept parallel to the line

18、 of sight. The surveyor can mark his readings of distances and elevations on a plane (or flat) table that serves as a drawing board. When the marks representing equal elevations are connected, the surveyor has made a contour map. contour maps :等高線圖 straightedged :直緣(棱)的，直規(guī)的 Heights or elevations are

19、 determined by means of a surveyors level, another kind of telescope with a bubble leveling device parallel to the telescope. A bubble level, which is similar to a carpenters level, is a tube containing a fluid that has an air bubble in it. When the bubble is centered in the middle of the tube, the

20、device is level. a bubble leveling device :氣泡水準(zhǔn)儀器 level :水平的 The surveyor sights a rule called a level rod through the telescope. The rod is marked off to show units of measure in large, clear numbers. The spaces between the marks usually are alternately black and white in order to increase visibili

21、ty .The number that the surveyor reads on the level rod, less the height of his or her instrument, is the vertical elevation3(Fig5.7). level rod :水準(zhǔn)尺的標(biāo)桿 less :減去，扣除：不計(jì) Approximate elevations can also be measured with an altimeter, which is a device that takes advantage of changes in atmospheric pres

22、sure. Readings taken with an altimeter are usually made at two, and sometimes three, different points and then averaged. The readings must be corrected humidity and temperature, as well as the weight of the air itself. altimeter :測(cè)高儀 humidity :濕度 Modern technology has been used for surveying in inst

23、ruments that measure distance by means of light or sound waves. These devices direct the waves toward a target that reflects them back to a receiver at the point of origin. The length of time it takes the waves to go to the target and return can then be computed into distance. This surveying method

24、is particularly useful when taking measurements over bodies of water. light or sound waves:光或聲波 target :目標(biāo) Aerial photography is another modern method of surveying. A photograph distorts scale at its edges in proportion to the distance the subject is from being in a direct vertical line with the len

25、s of the camera. For this reason, the photographs for an aerial survey are arranged to overlap so that the scale of one part joins the scale of the next. This arrangement is called a mosaic, after the pictures that are made from hundreds of bits of colored stone or glass. aerial photography :航空攝影術(shù) o

26、verlap:重迭排列 mosaic:鑲嵌 Geodetic surveying is much more complex than plane surveying. It involves measuring a network of triangles that are based on points on the earths surface. The triangulation is then reconciled by mathematical calculations with the shape of the earth. This shape, incidentally, is

27、 not a perfect sphere but an imaginary surface, slightly flattened at the poles, that represents mean sea level as though it were continued even under the continental land masses. geodetic surveying :大地測(cè)量 triangulation :三角測(cè)量 mathematical calculations:數(shù)學(xué)計(jì)算 continental:連續(xù)的 In addition to measuring sur

28、faces for civil engineering projects, it is often necessary to make a geological survey. This involves determining the composition of the soil and rock that underlie the surface at the construction site. geological survey :地質(zhì)勘測(cè) underlie :在下面 The nature of the soil, the depth at which bedrock is located, and the existence of faults or undergroun