寫科研論文的高級方法學(xué)

1、如何寫好研究生論文摘要 雜志上刊登的論文一般僅限于數(shù)千字,為何還要一段數(shù)百字的摘要呢?無非是便于讀者用最短時間掌握信息,了解研究工作或文章的主要內(nèi)容和結(jié)果,從而決定是否需要詳讀全文。在知識和信息加速度增長的今天,摘要的重要性更為突出。既為讀者閱覽起引導(dǎo)作用,更為文獻匯編、計算機儲存、檢索做好準備,成為科技情報的重要來源。摘要者,精華也。作者應(yīng)重視摘要的書寫。寫好摘要,既需要嚴肅認真的科學(xué)精神,更是一種雕琢藝術(shù),奉獻給讀者的是精品,起到的是相互交流、共同發(fā)展的目的。中文雜志的英文目錄和摘要更是進行國際交流的唯一途徑,直接反映我國科學(xué)研究和雜志的質(zhì)量水平,是讓世界了解中國的一個窗口。摘要不容贅言,

2、故需逐字推敲。內(nèi)容必須完整、具體、使人一目了然。英文摘要雖以中文摘要為基礎(chǔ),但要考慮到不能閱讀中文的讀者的需求,實質(zhì)性的內(nèi)容不能遺漏。為此,我國的科技期刊近年來陸續(xù)采用結(jié)構(gòu)式摘要,明確寫出目的、方法、結(jié)果和結(jié)論四部分。1.目的(Objective):簡明指出此項工作的目的,研究的范圍。2.方法(Methods):簡要說明研究課題的基本做法,包括對象(分組及每組例數(shù)、對照例數(shù)或動物只數(shù)等)、材料和方法(包括所用藥品劑量,重復(fù)次數(shù)等)。統(tǒng)計方法特殊者需注明。3.結(jié)果(Results):簡要列出主要結(jié)果(需注明單位)、數(shù)據(jù)、統(tǒng)計學(xué)意義(P值)等,并說明其價值和局限性。4.結(jié)論(Conclusion)

3、:簡要說明從該項研究結(jié)果取得的正確觀點、理論意義或?qū)嵱脙r值、推廣前景。中、英文摘要前需標明中、英文文題，作者姓名(至多3名)及作者單位(郵政編碼)。英文摘要應(yīng)隔行打字,以便修改1摘要應(yīng)是論文的內(nèi)容不加注釋和評論的簡短陳述，內(nèi)容不應(yīng)空洞、過簡。2摘要應(yīng)具有獨立性和自含性，即不閱讀論文的全文，就能獲得必要的信息。3摘要中有數(shù)據(jù)、有結(jié)論，是一篇完整的短文，可以獨立使用，可以引用，有助于本文內(nèi)容的推廣。4摘要的內(nèi)容應(yīng)包含與報告、論文同等量的主要信息，供讀者確定有無必要閱讀全文，也供文摘等二次文獻采用。5摘要一般應(yīng)說明研究工作目的、實驗方法、結(jié)果和最終結(jié)論等，而重點是結(jié)果和結(jié)論。6文中摘要一般不宜超過2

4、00300字；外文摘要不宜超過250個實詞，如遇特殊需要字數(shù)可以略多。7外文摘要內(nèi)容應(yīng)與中文摘要一致，并注意詞句表達符合英文語法規(guī)則，防止錯、漏和詞不達意。寫科研論文的高級方法學(xué)我的博客：讀中學(xué)的時候，我最喜歡語文寫作，但是提高寫作能力是很艱難的事情，很多時候，學(xué)習(xí)者沒有頭緒。語文老師上作文課也只是出個題目讓大家寫作，然后下一次上課讀讀范文（我的作文），籠統(tǒng)地說要觀點明確、結(jié)構(gòu)清楚，要多讀多寫，但是具體的“秘訣”說不上來。后來參加了少年文藝新芽寫作函授班。記得那時候的函授教材的第一課就是“立意”?？粗滩睦锩娴姆段?，感到寫得非常好，耳目一新。后來雖然也受到專業(yè)作家張成新的函授指導(dǎo)，也曾聽過少年

5、文藝主辦的講座，但是寫起文章來還不是很得心應(yīng)手，主要原因是那時實行應(yīng)試教育，市場上教學(xué)生寫作文的書很少，即使有，也是針對考試的作文。一直到了高二、高三，我才在作文上發(fā)揮出來，得到區(qū)級和市級作文競賽多個獎項。應(yīng)該說，大學(xué)里面學(xué)習(xí)的影視劇藝術(shù)、管理學(xué)原理、國際貿(mào)易、倫理學(xué)、大學(xué)生心理學(xué)、大學(xué)生生活導(dǎo)論課程對語文寫作是有間接作用的，因為人的閱歷多了，知識面拓寬了，就更夠更好地認識和描述社會現(xiàn)象，抒發(fā)自己的觀點。但是，在大學(xué)里面我沒有看過一本作文書，到了大學(xué)里以后，由于沒有語文課，幾年下來，筆頭銹掉了。對于英語學(xué)習(xí)來說，當時也是應(yīng)試教育，學(xué)習(xí)的重點是單詞、習(xí)慣用語和語法。雖然我承認復(fù)旦的教育使我的英語

6、水平上升了很多，但是其實學(xué)英語的最高境界就是沒有專門的英語課本，或者說什么（比如原版錄像、原版小說、雜志、書本）都是英語課本。后來在復(fù)旦讀了研究生，科研寫作得到了初步鍛煉，雖然有學(xué)術(shù)大師指點，但是在科技寫作上還是不得心應(yīng)手。主要原因是：（1）看科研文獻太少；（）練得太少；（）沒有讀專業(yè)指導(dǎo)寫作的書。在讀研究生后期的一個收獲是發(fā)表網(wǎng)絡(luò)文學(xué)，結(jié)果筆頭又好了，找到感覺了。出國以后，一開始寫的第一篇科研文章(Journal of Catalysis)的初稿還是寫得不怎么好。被博導(dǎo)來回修改了好幾遍，每一遍都是紙頭上一片紅的，他在紙頭上修改好以后，我再在計算機上進行修改，再給他看。如此這般，反復(fù)修改。他又

7、不會當面給我仔細分析這個地方為什么要這么改，因此我主要靠自己的悟性和反復(fù)修改了。原創(chuàng)科研論文當然不是經(jīng)常有的，因為做實驗出文章當然慢，所以鍛煉的機會也少。我得到最好的鍛煉就是寫綜述。在寫綜述的過程中閱讀了大量文獻，基礎(chǔ)打得扎實。讀書破萬卷，下筆如有神嘛。寫了幾篇綜述，一篇比一篇長，一篇比一篇難寫。其中第三篇綜述，我不做實驗整整寫了七個月，終于把筆頭練出來了。在做博士后的時候，在寫作方面就更加有獨立性了，基本上我怎么寫，就怎么發(fā)表的，審稿人都說寫得很好。也接觸到了一些專門教寫作的書籍，在理論知識上得到進步。現(xiàn)在，我介紹一下我的一些關(guān)于寫科技論文方法學(xué)的籠統(tǒng)的體會。寫科技論文，有基本功要求，主要是

8、如何遣詞造句，如何用標點符號，如何用縮略語等。關(guān)于這一方面的書有：The ACS Style Guide和The Elements of Style?？梢哉f，這些都是科技寫作的基本功，如果基本功不扎實，審稿人一眼就看出來了。但是，熟讀這些書，把用法都背出來還是遠遠不夠的。除此之外還有一些高級的方法和高級的指導(dǎo)書。曾經(jīng)讀到一些專門介紹科技寫作的書，如Wiley出版社出版的The Arts of Scientific Writing，但是讀了以后感到?jīng)]有什么收獲。后來認識到要學(xué)習(xí)到“高級”的寫作方法，還是要回歸到邏輯學(xué)、修辭學(xué)、市場營銷學(xué)（廣告學(xué)）、科學(xué)哲學(xué)上面來，從這些非化學(xué)的知識里面得到啟發(fā)。

9、比如：寫文章初稿的時候，一般人是按照自己的思路來寫，想怎么寫就怎么寫?？墒?，高級的方法就是首先要分析很多問題：Is this research new? Are the data important and interesting? What is the point here? Since there are already a lot of papers, then why should we report our current work? Can the data sufficiently support the conclusions? Are the conclusions con

10、sistent with what was reported in the literature?這些問題有點象市場營銷學(xué)：既然市場上已經(jīng)有很多同類商品了，為什么我們要生產(chǎn)我們的商品？我們的商品和別人的商品有什么區(qū)別？怎么把“市場細分原理”運用到我們商品（文章）的銷售中去？有這種critical thinking很重要！記得讀博士的時候?qū)W習(xí)化學(xué)動力學(xué)，考試的形式之一是從文獻里拿一篇文章來講解。考官就會問：既然別人已經(jīng)研究過這個體系，那么為什么這篇文章還要研究類似的東西？是它的結(jié)論推翻了以前的結(jié)論，還是它用了新的儀器方法，還是它的數(shù)據(jù)更加精確？如果只是數(shù)據(jù)更加精確，換湯不換藥，那么意義在什么地方

11、？更重要的是，不是從自己的角度分析自己的文章如何如何好，而是從讀者角度分析：Why should the reader read my paper? Why should people care about our research? How can our research benefit others' research? What can be done next by others based on our results? What questions will the reader have? If so, then how can we better write our

12、paper to make the points clearer to the reader?這種思維方法如同準備做報告的思維方法一樣：做報告之前，重要的不僅僅是想清楚自己要講什么重要思想，而且還是要想清楚聽眾是哪些人？他們來聽報告，希望得到什么樣的信息？怎樣講才是對聽眾來說有價值的？怎樣建立起自己的報告和聽眾的聯(lián)系？有的人做報告就是說這個催化劑效果比那個好，聽眾睡著了。要提煉出更加有通用性的、方法學(xué)的東西，這樣聽眾才會有興趣。（關(guān)于這方面的方法學(xué)論述見哈佛商學(xué)院出版的Presentatios that Persuade and Motivate, 2004年出版。）這也和廣告學(xué)、消費者心理學(xué)

13、的原理類似，即要分析受眾關(guān)心什么、需要什么。這個要點（從讀者角度分析），說起來很簡單，但是做起來卻很難，因為這是一種很微妙的方法，一般人很難把握。Don Dunbar寫的What You Don't Know Can Keep You Out of Collegep. 29. "For essays, showing your best self starts the same way as for interviews: You need to interest both yourself and your reader. But when you're writi

14、ng, you don't have the reader sitting across from you, showing with his or her reactions whether you are getting through. For this reason, it's a good idea to make sure that the subject you're writing about is not just personal, but universal. Universal doesn't mean "very very b

15、ig" and "important", it means that anyone-anyone in the universe, I suppose-can connect with it. It's universal the way type O blood is the "universal doner": anyone can receive it." 哈佛商學(xué)院出版的Face-to-Face Communicaions for Clarity and Impact"Don't recite the

16、 facts-interpret them! People don't want a recitation. What they want to know is, What sense do you make out of this data? What is the conclusion? Do you have a logical flow in your thought process? And can we see that?"哈佛商學(xué)院出版的Presentatios that Persuade and Motivate"We humans are at o

17、nce nobel and selfish. If you appeal soley to our self-interest, we will listen, and perhaps appreciate your words. But we won't respect you. To really get your audience on its feet-and rioting-you have to show them how self-interest and larger principles coincide, such that personal sacrifice i

18、s worth it if it becomes necessary.""You need to find the way in which you and the audience are alike and make those clear early on. Your listeners will then be willing to open themselves to your message. It is way of building trust early on. Audiences want their speakers to have credibili

19、ty, and they want to be able to trust them. You can't create the latter unless you find a way to conntect with your audience.""In any communication task, you must understand what your audience needs to know, Your first step-long before you walk into the room-is to ask who the audience

20、is and how they will use the information you provide. Then you can structure your presentation around those needs.""The audience arrives wondering: Why should we care? Why is this important? So rather than jumping straight into the history of federal housing on Indian reservations, start b

21、y describing the current housing crisis. You get your listeners' minds working (How did this come about? How can we solve it?) in ways that give them context for the historical discussion.Timothy W. Crusius和Carolyn E. Channell寫的The Aims of Argument: A Brief Rhetoric"The first step is to ide

22、ntify possible appeals to your readership. Keep in mind that good persuaders are able to empathize and sympathize with other people, building bridges of commonality and solidarity. To aid in your audience analysis, ask these questions:- Who are my readers? How do I define them in terms of age, econo

23、mic and social class, gender, education, and so forth?- What type of attitudes or stances toward my topic do they have?- What in their background or daily experiences helps explain their point of view?- What are they likely to know my topic?- How might they be uninformed or informed about it?- How w

24、ould they they like to see the problem, question, or issue resolved, answered, or handeled? Why?- In what larger framework-religious, political, economic-do they place my topic?"在修改文章的時候，要走到紙頭的“背面”去，用審稿人的眼光來挑剔地看自己的文章，給與自己的文章無情的轟擊，指出這個不好，那個不清楚，還要做什么實驗。帶著疑問，去做實驗，查文獻，進行彌補漏洞。經(jīng)過幾次“反饋回路”，把文章的水平提高。相反，

25、如果對自己的文章非常樂觀和自信，有暈輪效應(yīng)，得到稻草也以為是得到黃金了，那么就投不中。有的人自己做過很多回審稿人，有一種奇妙的感覺，知道投這個雜志應(yīng)該達到什么樣的水平。有的書上說，可以請懂行的人看一下文章，提出尖銳意見，然后進行修改。這里要說的是修改文章從審稿人的角度去修改，很有用處?？梢哉f，很多文章投某個雜志，遭到退稿，其實按照審稿人的意見仔細修改以后，質(zhì)量還是不錯的，但是就是因為已經(jīng)被退稿了，所以只能投其它雜志了。讓我們想一想：假設(shè)這樣的文章實現(xiàn)能得到懂行人的“模擬審稿意見”，把把脈，然后進行補做實驗、精心修改，本來就能一次命中高檔次雜志的！Timothy W. Crusius和Carol

26、yn E. Channell寫的The Aims of Argument: A Brief Rhetoric"Have a dialogue with yourself about your own writing.1. Ask what you mean by the words that are central to the argument. Have you provided definations when they are needed?2. Find the reasons, and note their relation to the thesis. Be able

27、to state the connection, ideally, with the word "because": thesis because of reason.3. Be able to state what assumptions lie behind your thesis and any of your reasons. Ask yourself, What else would someone have to believe to accept this as valid? If your audience is unlikely to share the

28、assumption, then you must add an argument for it-or change your thesis.4. Look at your comparisons and analogies. Are they persuasive?5. Look at your evidence. Have you offered facts, expert opinion, illustrations, and so on? Have you presented these in a way that would not raise doubuts but elimina

29、te them?6. Consider your own bias. What do you stand to gain from advocating the position you take? Is your argument self-serving or truth-serving?Because it is hard to be objective about your own work, getting a reading from a friend, classmate, teacher, or family member is a good way o see where r

30、evision would help. An unfocused reading, however, usually isn't critical enoughl casual readers may applaud the draft woo readily if they agree with the thesis and condemn it if they disagree. Therefore, have your readers use a revision checklist."寫好科技論文，除了滿足基本功要求和用讀者、審稿人的角度來反思自己文章以外，具體到寫作

31、方法來說，這里面也有很多“戰(zhàn)法”。這正如拍電影、寫小說、下圍棋都是有一定方法的一樣。關(guān)于段落的結(jié)構(gòu)和寫法可以見Sheridan Baker的The Practical Stylist。這本書講到開頭要從一個寬泛的事情或者概念收攏到本文具體到講的東西。這本書還講了每一段都要有主題句（topics sentence），每一段話講一個意思，而每一段要有具體的功能！Timothy W. Crusius和Carolyn E. Channell寫的The Aims of Argument: A Brief Rhetoric"Multiple paragraphs are generally re

32、quired to develop and support a reason. The key thing to remember about paragraphs is that each one is a unit that performs some function in presenting the case. You ought to be able to say what the function of a given paragraph is-and your reader ought to be able to sense it. Doe it introduce a rea

33、son? Does it define a term? Does it support a reason by setting up an analogy? Does another paragraph support the same reason by offering examples or some hard data or an illustrative case?" "Not all paragraphs need topic sentences to announce their main point. Worry instead about opening

34、each paragraph with some hints that allow readers to recognize the function of the paragraph. For example, some transitional word or phrase could announce to readers that you are turning from one reason to a new one. When you introduce a new reason, be sure that readers can see how it relates to the

35、 thesis. Repeating a key word or offering a synonym for one of the words in the thesis is a good idea."我們經(jīng)常發(fā)現(xiàn)很多寫得不好科研論文的段落沒有功能，或者一段話有兩個功能！現(xiàn)在我來舉例說明段落的主題句和功能。22. H.F. Yin, Z. Ma, S.H. Overbury, S. Dai*, Promotion of Au(en)2Cl3-Derived Au/Fumed SiO2 by Treatment with KMnO4, Journal of Physical Che

36、mistry C, in press. <link> /10.1021/jp800797t這篇文章Introduction的第三段寫得很基本，是白話文，但是里面有起承轉(zhuǎn)合在里面：第一句是總起句。接下去，第二句和第三句的功能是舉例說明總起句總結(jié)的內(nèi)容：第二句指出在文獻中，別人做了什么。這句話用了一個"For one."，表示這句話的功能是舉例；第三句指出我們小組和別人以前還報道了什么。既然別人和我們小組做了這個，做了那個，那么為什么發(fā)表本文有必要呢？第四句筆鋒一轉(zhuǎn)，說："Nevertheless, even though.

37、"其功能是指出文獻（或者說“市場”）中缺乏的東西（或者說“產(chǎn)品”），為第五句埋下伏筆。第五句"Hence, the promotional effect based on a better starting point (i.e., highly active Au/SiO2 synthesized by advanced methods16-22) may be further considered, and new methodologies for the installation of appropriate promoters may be developed.&

38、quot;指出根據(jù)以上邏輯分析，在“市場”上，什么樣的“產(chǎn)品”是需要的。這句話的好處之一是用了"hence"(therefore)顯示邏輯關(guān)系。好處之二是它“預(yù)測”了市場上什么樣的東西是需要的。這當然不能亂寫，胡亂預(yù)測，因為預(yù)測的東西，通過做實驗，在本文中得到了實現(xiàn)。如果作者不準備報道什么東西，就不要在Introduction里面胡亂預(yù)測。也就是說，預(yù)測的東西在后面是要有“呼應(yīng)”的，如果沒有呼應(yīng)，審稿人就會說他被欺騙了。"Attempts have been made to modify SiO2 supports before loading gold.28-3

39、5 For one, Nieuwenhuys and coworkers reported that the T50 (reaction temperature at which 50% of CO molecules are converted to CO2) value of Au/SiO2 in CO oxidation is 240oC, but when SiO2 is modified by CoOx, LaOx, or CeOx and gold is loaded thereafter, the T50 values decrease to 185, 135, and 115o

40、C, respectively, indicating the promotional effect of these additives.28 Our group29,31 and others28,30,32-35 developed Au/TiO2/SiO229-33 and Au/CoOx/SiO234,35 catalysts for CO oxidation. Nevertheless, even though the addition of certain promoters may improve the activity, the promoted catalysts are

41、 still not particularly active due to the unadvantageous starting point: the deposition-precipitation method does not work well for making active Au/SiO2 catalysts.29 Hence, the promotional effect based on a better starting point (i.e., highly active Au/SiO2 synthesized by advanced methods16-22) may

42、 be further considered, and new methodologies for the installation of appropriate promoters may be developed."在Results部分，每一段開頭都有一個topics sentence，雖然這些句子很簡單，也很“原始”，但是至少讓審稿人一目了然地知道作者要說什么，在每一段里面用了什么方法實現(xiàn)了什么功能。3.1. Catalytic Activity in CO oxidationFigure 2A shows the CO light-off curves of Au/SiO2

43、synthesized using Au(en)2Cl3 as the precursor.Figure 2B shows the CO light-off curves of KMnO4/Au/SiO2 (pH 7).The KMnO4/Au/SiO2 (pH 7) catalyst is greatly activated after treatment in O2-He at 220-600oC, and the optimal pretreatment temperature is 300oC (Figure 2B).Figure 3 shows the catalytic resul

44、ts when the H2-pretreated Au/SiO2 is treated by KMnO4 under acidic (pH 3) or basic (pH 11) conditions. 3.2. Catalyst CharacterizationFigure 4 collects four sets of XRD patterns of Au/SiO2, KMnO4/Au/SiO2 (pH 3), KMnO4/Au/SiO2 (pH 7), and KMnO4/Au/SiO2 (pH 11).To know the gold particle sizes(向讀者說明這么做的

45、目的), we used TEM to probe different positions and recorded several images for each sample.For comparison(向讀者說明邏輯關(guān)系：對比), Figure 6 collects typical TEM images of KMnO4/Au/SiO2 (pH 7).Figure 8 compares TG/DTG data of Au/SiO2 and KMnO4/Au/SiO2 (pH 7).3.3. Catalyst Stability on StreamFinally, we tested t

46、he stability of 300oC-pretreated KMnO4/Au/SiO2 (pH 7).另外一本Timothy W. Crusius和Carolyn E. Channell寫的The Aims of Argument: A Brief Rhetoric雖然是介紹怎么在報紙雜志寫議論文的，但是對科研寫作（特別是Discussion部分）很有啟發(fā)，有助于寫出有條理、有邏輯性的文章。聯(lián)系到寫科研論文Discussion部分，好比說你發(fā)現(xiàn)一個現(xiàn)象，如果你只是如癡如醉地用一種原因來解釋這種現(xiàn)象，那么還不如逐個分析三種不同的解釋，用證據(jù)和論證來否定前面兩種，然后正面證實第三種解釋。這種

47、方法被運用在下面兩篇文章的Discussion部分：22. H.F. Yin, Z. Ma, S.H. Overbury, S. Dai*, Promotion of Au(en)2Cl3-Derived Au/Fumed SiO2 by Treatment with KMnO4, Journal of Physical Chemistry C, in press. <link> /10.1021/jp800797t 20. W.F. Yan, Z. Ma, S.M. Mahurin, J. Jiao, E.W. Hagaman, S.H. Over

48、bury, S. Dai*, Novel Au/TiO2/Al2O3.xH2O Catalysts for CO Oxidation, Catalysis Letters 121 (2008) 209-218. <link> /10.1007/s10562-007-9369-1哈佛商學(xué)院出版的Presentatios that Persuade and Motivatep. 40. "If it's going to be controversial, lay out three alternatives and tell, in

49、order, why each one won'd work. Then, describe your favored solution-and describe its pitfalls, too. The point is to walk them through the decesion-making process, after all, so if there are other obvious alternatives, and pitfalls to your own, don't avoid them. If you do, the audience will

50、start creating them at the water cooler after the talk, and all your hard work will be for nothing."p. 40. "Rhetorically, you should present the options you intend the audience to favor at the end of your list, because audiences tend to remember best things they hear last."還有種表現(xiàn)手法就是先詳

51、細闡述自己的解釋，然后筆鋒一轉(zhuǎn)說也許有的人（比如審稿人）會說.（提出不同的解釋），但是我們并不支持這個不同的解釋，這是因為.這兩種表現(xiàn)手法在The Aims of Argument: A Brief Rhetoric也有說明。道理是：讀者心里當然有不同的解釋，作為作者，就應(yīng)該起到釋疑的作用，給讀者分析清楚每種解釋的利弊。再有，現(xiàn)代社會召喚什么樣的人？思維活潑開放，勇于接受新理論的人。如果有的作者不分析其它的解釋，只是一味強調(diào)、一口咬定自己的解釋是對的，那么這就是思維僵化。（證據(jù)見：What You Don't Know Can Keep You Out of College, Don

52、Dunbar著）Timothy W. Crusius和Carolyn E. Channell寫的The Aims of Argument: A Brief Rhetoric"A final-and optional-step is to assess an arguger's refutations. In a refutation a writer anticipitates potential objections to his or her position and tries to show why they do not undermine the basic ar

53、gument. Refutations do not relate directly to claims, reasons, and evidence. A skilled arguer typically uses them not as part of the main logic of an argument but as a separate step to deal with any obvious objections a reader is likely to have."Don Dunbar寫的What You Don't Know Can Keep You Out of Collegep. 47. "Stu